A qualitative research design is used to understand people's perceptions and

experiences by telling their narratives. This design explains how people perceive their
experiences and how they affect their decision-making and actions.
TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH:

1. Case Study- is focused on the analysis and understanding of a specific situation,

phenomenon, person, or group of people.
According to Stake (1995) and Yin (2009), is are the process how a case study is conducted:
1. Case Selection
2. Formulation of Research Questions
3. Data Collection: Data is collected through the following:
o Interviews
o Observations
4. Documents and Artifacts: analyze the documents and materials connected to the case.
5. Data Analysis: analyze the data according theme, pattern and its relations.
6. Case Description: the researcher will write a detailed description of the case with its
findings and interpretation.

Advantages ng Case Study Research:

1. In-Depth Understanding: Case studies provide a detailed understanding of
specific cases, illuminating complex phenomena that are difficult to explain
using qualitative studies.
2. Rich Data Collection: can us varied ways of data collection like interviews,
observations, and documents that gives more information to explain the
case.
3. Contextual Insights: it gives insights to the researcher to understand the
nature of the case study.
4. Flexibility: It enables adaptation and development of questions as research
progresses, leading to more opportunities to capture essential details.
5. Real-World Relevance: It provides concrete examples and cases that can be
applied to real-life situations, helping professionals gain practical insight

Limitations ng Case Study Research:

1. Generalization Issues: A major limitation of case study research is the challenge of
generalizing findings to a wider population, as the results are focused solely on a specific
case.
 2. Time-Consuming: Case study research is often intensive and requires a significant
amount of time and effort, from data collection through to analysis.

3. Subjectivity: The interpretation of data can be influenced by the researcher’s

biases, which may undermine the credibility of the findings.

4. Complexity: Understanding the interrelated factors within a case can be difficult,

and complex data may lead to uncertain conclusions.

5. Limited Control Over Variables: In case studies, researchers typically have less
control over variables compared to experimental research, which can affect the
interpretation of results.

Example:
Example 1: A case study analyzing a specific educational intervention in one school and
its effects on student engagement and academic performance.
Example 2: A comprehensive study of a community health initiative designed to lower
obesity rates in a specific neighborhood, emphasizing implementation methods and
participant feedback.

2. Phenomenology-Qualitative research is a method that seeks to understand personal

experiences by exploring the essence and meaning of what individuals feel and think
about a specific experience or concept. The goal is to uncover the significance of that
experience through an in-depth analysis of their perceptions and emotions.
According to Moustakas (1994) in "Phenomenological Research Methods" and Manen
(1990) in "Researching Lived Experience” ,this is How Phenomenological Research is
Conducted:
1. Identifying the Phenomenon: The researcher begins by selecting a specific
phenomenon or experience to investigate, such as grief, love, or illness.
2. Bracketing: The researcher engages in a process called bracketing, where they set
aside preconceived notions and biases about the phenomenon to approach the data
with an open mind.
3. Data Collection:
 In-Depth Interviews: Conduct interviews with participants to elicit detailed
descriptions of their experiences related to the phenomenon.
 Journals or Artifacts: Collecting written accounts, drawings, or other artifacts
that provide insights into participants' experiences.
 4. Descriptive Analysis: The researcher analyzes the data to identify themes, patterns,
and significant statements that capture the essence of participants' experiences.
5. Essence Description: The final step involves writing a narrative that describes the
essence of the phenomenon, synthesizing the findings from participants'
descriptions.
6. Validation with Participants: Researchers may return to participants to verify the
findings and ensure the accuracy of their interpretations.

Advantages of Phenomenological Research:

1. In-Depth Understanding of Experiences: Phenomenology provides a deep
understanding of how individuals perceive and make sense of their lived experiences.
2. Emphasis on Subjectivity: The approach values participants' perspectives, allowing
their voices to be heard and understood.
3. Contextual Insights: Phenomenological research captures the context and nuances of
experiences, providing a richer understanding of human behavior.
4. Flexibility: The method allows for exploring various phenomena and adapting the
research process based on participants' narratives.

Limitations of Phenomenological Research:

1. Subjectivity and Researcher Bias: Researchers' interpretations can be influenced by
their biases and experiences, potentially affecting the findings.
2. Time-Intensive: The process of data collection and analysis can be lengthy, as it
involves detailed descriptions and interpretations.
3. Challenges in Generalization: Findings are often specific to individuals or small
groups, making it difficult to generalize to larger populations.
4. Complex Analysis: Analyzing rich qualitative data can be complex and may require
advanced skills for effective interpretation.

Example:
Example 1: A phenomenological study exploring the experiences of patients with chronic
pain, delving into how they perceive and cope with their condition.
Example 2: An investigation into the experiences of survivors of natural disasters, aiming
to capture their feelings of loss, resilience, and recovery.
3.Ethnography- process of understanding a community's culture, lifestyle, and beliefs
through direct experience of their daily lives.
According to Fetterman (2010) in "Ethnography: Step-by-Step" and Wolcott (2008) in
"Ethnography: A Way of Seeing," this how Ethnography is Conducted:
1. Preparation and Planning: The researcher begins with background research to
understand the community and to define the research goals and questions.
2. Entering the Field: The researcher immerses themselves in the community, spending
time building trust and rapport with participants to gain insights into their daily lives.
3. Participant Observation: This key technique involves the researcher actively engaging
in the community's activities while observing behaviors and interactions, often
taking on the role of an "observer-as-participant."
4. Data Collection Methods: In addition to participant observation, researchers may
use:
 Interviews: Structured or semi-structured questions to gather in-depth
insights from participants.
 Field Notes:** Detailed observations, interactions, and events recorded in
real-time during fieldwork.
 Collecting Artifacts:** Gathering relevant documents, images, and
materials that provide additional context about the community’s culture.
5. Iterative Analysis: Researchers analyze the data iteratively to identify patterns,
themes, and relationships within the cultural context.
6. Writing the Ethnographic Report: The researcher composes a detailed narrative
based on their findings, highlighting the community's culture and perspectives in a
respectful manner.
7. Returning to the Community for Verification: Engagement with participants is
essential to validate findings, ensuring that interpretations are accurate and fair.
Advantages of Ethnography:
1. In-Depth Cultural Understanding: Ethnography provides a comprehensive
understanding of a community's culture, revealing their beliefs, practices, and
interactions in natural settings.
2. Holistic Perspective: The immersive nature of ethnography allows researchers to
capture the complexities and nuances of social life that may be overlooked by other
methods.
3. Rich Qualitative Data: The combination of observations, interviews, and artifacts
leads to diverse and rich data that offer insights into human behavior.
 4. Contextualized Findings: Ethnographic research emphasizes the importance of
context, providing a deeper understanding of how cultural factors influence behavior.
Limitations of Ethnography:
1. Time-Consuming: Ethnography often requires extended periods in the field, making it
a time-intensive research method.
2. Subjectivity and Researcher Bias: The researcher’s perspectives and experiences can
influence data collection and interpretation, potentially affecting the reliability of the
findings.
3. Generalization Issues: Ethnographic studies focus on specific groups, making it
challenging to generalize findings to broader populations.
4. Ethical Concerns: Deep engagement with communities can raise ethical dilemmas,
particularly regarding consent, privacy, and representation.

4.Grounded Theory—This design employs an inductive approach that develops a theory or

framework based on data gathered from respondents, rather than relying on pre-existing
hypotheses and theories.
According to Charmaz (2006) in "Constructing Grounded Theory" and Corbin & Strauss
(2008) in "Basics of Qualitative Research," here is How Grounded Theory is Conducted:
### Identifying a Research Problem
1. Selecting a Topic: Begin by choosing a topic of interest and formulating
research questions to guide your study.
2. Data Collection: This can involve various techniques such as interviews,
observations, and document analysis. Data collection and analysis occur
simultaneously in an iterative process.
3. Open Coding: This involves breaking the data down into discrete parts and
identifying key concepts and categories.
4. Axial Coding: Examine the relationships and patterns that emerge from the
categories.
5. Selective Coding: Researchers concentrate on core categories that represent
the central themes of the study. The goal is to develop a grounded theory
that explains the findings.
6. Memo Writing: Throughout the research process, writing memos helps
researchers reflect on their thoughts, insights, and the evolution of their
theory.
 7. Theoretical Sampling: Researchers use theoretical sampling to steer data
collection based on emerging categories, aiming to explore and further
develop the grounded theory.
8. Saturation: Data collection continues until saturation is reached, meaning no
new information emerges from additional data.
Advantages of Grounded Theory:
1. Theory Development: Grounded theory offers a systematic approach to developing
theories based on empirical data.
2. Flexibility: The iterative nature of data collection and analysis allows for adaptability
in response to emerging findings.
3. Rich Data Insights: This method emphasizes capturing the complexity of human
experiences and perspectives.
4. Participant-Centric: It prioritizes the voices and experiences of participants, leading to
more relevant and meaningful findings.

Limitations of Grounded Theory:

1. Time-Consuming: The iterative process can result in lengthy research timelines.
2. Subjectivity: The researcher's interpretations can influence findings, potentially
introducing biases.
3. Complexity in Analysis: The analysis process can be intricate and may require
significant expertise to manage effectively.
4. Generalization Challenges: Grounded theory findings are often context-specific,
making it difficult to generalize results to broader populations.

5.Narrative Inquiry- It is a method to deeply understand the narratives and personal

experiences of respondents as significant data for problem-solving.
According to Clandinin and Connelly (2000), here is How Narrative Inquiry is Conducted:
1. Establishing a Research Focus: The researcher identifies a specific experience or
phenomenon to investigate through narratives.
2. Building Relationships: Establishing rapport with participants is crucial, as trust
facilitates the open sharing of personal stories.
 3. Data Collection: Data is primarily collected through in-depth interviews, during
which participants share their narratives about their experiences. Researchers may
also collect artifacts or documents related to these stories.
4. Story Analysis: After collecting the narratives, researchers analyze them for themes,
patterns, and meanings, paying attention to the context and relational aspects of
storytelling.
5. Contextualization: Clandinin and Connelly emphasize the importance of
understanding the context in which stories are told, including social, cultural, and
historical influences.
6. Co-constructing Stories: The researcher and participant may collaborate in
interpreting and reflecting on the narratives, recognizing that meaning is co-
constructed through dialogue.
7. Reporting Findings: The final narrative report includes rich descriptions of
participants’ stories, highlighting key themes and insights derived from the analysis.
Advantages of Narrative Inquiry:
1. In-Depth Insights: Narrative inquiry provides a profound understanding of individual
experiences, emphasizing the complexity of human life.
2. Rich, Contextual Data: The focus on storytelling captures the nuances of experiences
within their specific contexts.
3. Empowerment of Participants: Sharing their stories empowers participants to voice
their perspectives authentically.
4. Holistic Understanding: This approach explores how experiences shape identity and
meaning over time.
Limitations of Narrative Inquiry
1. Subjectivity: The interpretation of narratives may be influenced by the researcher’s
perspectives and biases.
2. Time-Intensive: Conducting narrative inquiry can be lengthy due to the need for
relationship building and the analysis of rich, detailed data.
3. Generalization Challenges: Findings from narrative inquiry are often specific to
individuals or small groups, making generalization to larger populations difficult.
4. Reliability Issues: The subjective nature of narratives raises concerns about the
reliability and validity of the findings.