Introduction to Electrical Engineering 22ESEE14

Module 2: DC Circuits and Electromagnetism

Active and Passive components:
Active components: components which possess energy of its own and have the ability of transmitting
the stored energy are called active components.

Ex: Voltage sources, current sources, generators etc

Passive components: Components which do not possess their own energy and borrow energy from
active components are called passive components.

Ex: inductor, capacitor and resister.

An inductor stores the energy in the form of electromagnetic field. A capacitor stores the energy in
the form of electrostatic field. A resister dissipates the energy in the form of heat.

Elements of a DC Circuit:
Voltage:

Voltage is always measured as the difference between any two points in a circuit and the voltage
between these two points is generally referred to as the “Voltage drop”

Note that voltage can exist across a circuit without current, This is called as an open circuit. However,
current cannot exist without voltage. Any voltage source whether DC or AC can tolerate an open or
semi-open circuit condition but voltage sources are highly intolerant of short circuit condition as this
can destroy it.

Electrical current:

In DC circuit theory, electrical Current, ( I ) is the movement or flow of electrical charge and is
measured in Amperes, symbol i, for intensity). It is the continuous and uniform flow (called a drift) of
electrons (the negative particles of an atom) around a circuit that are being “pushed” by the voltage
source.

Resistance:

In DC Circuit theory, resistance opposes the flow of current in a circuit.

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Ohm’s Law:
In any material, the voltage directly proportional to the current flowing through it, provided the
temperature remains constant the constant of proportionality is defined through resistance.

The limitations of ohm's law is as follows:

1. Does not hold true for semiconductor devices.

2. Does not hold true if the temperature is not constant
3. Does not hold true for non-metallic conductors

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Electrical power:
Electrical Power, ( P ) in a circuit is the rate at which energy is absorbed or produced within a circuit.

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DC Series Circuit/ Voltage divider Circuit:

To evaluate VR2, we must first determine I. Recalling that I in the simple series circuit shown is

we can then substitute this value of I in the original expression for VR2 and obtain

If we were interested in the voltage across R1, it would be equal to

DC Parallel Circuit/ Current Divider Circuit:

the current I is divided into I1 and I2 into 2 parallel branches with high resistances R1 and R2

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We know that

V = IR

The equation of currents can be written as

The equivalent resistance of the parallel circuit can be written as

from ohm's law

Kirchhoff’s laws:
Kirchhoff’s Circuit Laws allow us to solve complex circuit problems by defining a set of basic network
laws and theorems for the voltages and currents around a circuit.

Kirchhoff’s current law:

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Kirchhoff’s Current Law or KCL, states that the “total current or charge entering a junction or node is
exactly equal to the charge leaving the node as it has no other place to go except to leave, as no charge
is lost within the node“. In other words the algebraic sum of ALL the currents entering and leaving a
node must be equal to zero, I(exiting) + I(entering) = 0. This idea by Kirchhoff is commonly known as
the Conservation of Charge.

Kirchhoff’s voltage law:

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law or KVL, states that “in any closed loop network, the total voltage around the
loop is equal to the sum of all the voltage drops within the same loop” which is also equal to zero. In
other words the algebraic sum of all voltages within the loop must be equal to zero. This idea by
Kirchhoff is known as the Conservation of Energy.

Steps to apply Kirchhoff’s Voltage law:

1. Mark the voltage polarity across each element in the closed loop.
2. Choose the direction of current to be flowing in clockwise direction through the closed loop.
3. Mark the polarity across the resistances by marking negative sign towards the arrowhead and
positive sign towards the tail end.
4. However, if the direction of current is already specified in the question mark the polarity
across the resister based on this direction.
5. Now travel in the clockwise direction through the loop. If you meet a voltage rise, write the
voltage with a positive sign. If you meet a voltage drop, write the voltage with a negative sign.

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6. In this manner add all the voltage rise and voltage drops in the clockwise direction and equate
it to zero.

Steps to solve problems using Kirchhoff’s Circuit laws

1. Assigns a current to each branch or mesh in clockwise direction. If the direction is already
specified in the question, mark the polarity across the resistors based on this direction.

2. Label each branch with a branch current. ( I1, I2, I3 etc. )

3. Find Kirchhoff’s first law equations for each node.

4. Find Kirchhoff’s second law equations for each of the independent loops of the circuit.

5. Use Linear simultaneous equations as required to find the unknown currents.

6. Go to the following links to learn the steps of using scientific calculator for simultaneous
equations:

• For 991 ES - https://youtu.be/hCc3FT7NdHg

• For 991 EX- https://youtu.be/RAzr5DvXxrQ

• For 991 MS- https://youtu.be/pEfXh7pQ9NI

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Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction:

The law states that “if the magnitude of flux through the coil changes with time an EMF is induced in
the coil”.
The induced emf causes a current to flow in a direction that opposes to change in flux. this is stated
as lenz law. “ The emf induced in coil opposes the very cause producing it”

The change in flux linkages of the coil occurs when:

1. the coil is stationary and the flux through it changes with time. Such an induced emf is called
statically induced emf
2. the flux density distribution is constant but coil moves relative to it. Such induced emf is called
dynamically induced emf

Magnitude of induced emf:

The dynamically induced emf in a conductor of length l(m) placed at angle ϴ to a stationary magnetic
field of flux density B(T) cutting across it at speed v(m/s) is given by
e = | v × B | l Volts
e = Blv sin ϴ Volts

Direction of induced emf:

Extend the thumb, first and second fingers of the right hand mutually at right angles to each other. If
the thumb represents the direction of v (motion of conductor with respect to B), first finger the
direction of B, then the second finger gives the direction of emf along l (the conductor).

Self inductance:
Consider a coil of N turns wound on an iron core and carrying current I as shown in fig below

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The coil creates flux z in the core called self-flux, which is assumed to link all the N turns (no leakage).
As the flux varies with time (caused by current varying with time) the emf is induced in the coil due to
the inductance.
Self-inductance: Self inductance is defined as the phenomenon in which a change in electric current
in a circuit produces an induced electro-motive-force in the same circuit.

Mutual Inductance:
When two coils are wound on a common core or placed close to each other, a part of the flux produced
by one coil also links the other coil as shown in Fig.

Mutual Inductance : The mutual inductance of two coils is defined as the emf induced when the
magnetic field in one coil opposes the change of current and voltage in another coil. That means the
two coils are magnetically linked together due to the change in magnetic flux. Therefore magnetic
field or flux of one coil links with another coil.