UNIT II: LISTENING & SPEAKING SKILLS

LISTENING
MEANING: To listen is to give attention to sound or action. When listening, one is hearing
what others are saying, and trying to understand what it means. The act of listening
involves complex, effective, cognitive, and behavioral processes. Listening is the ability to
accurately receive and interpret messages in the communication process. Listening is key
to all effective communication. Without the ability to listen effectively, messages are easily
misunderstood. Listening is often confused with hearing. While hearing is a biological
process, listening is neurological cognitive response to the process of auditory stimuli
received by the auditory system. It is psycho-physical activity that demands attention to
words as well as gestures.

The importance of listening is to make a conscious effort not to just hear what people are
saying but to take it in, digest it and understand. Listening does not only enhance your
ability to understand better and make you a better communicator, but also makes the
experience of speaking to you more enjoyable to other people.
Listening is a critical skill and Learning is a result of listening.

Difference between Listening and Hearing-

“Hearing is through ears, but listening is through the mind.” The two activities hearing and
listening involve the use of ears, but they are different. The hearing is nothing but a sense
that helps you receive sound waves and noise by ears. It is the power of perceiving sounds.
On the contrary, listening is when you receive the sound waves and understand it by
paying full attention to the words and sentences of the speaker. It is one’s ability to
correctly receive and interpret the message transferred by the other party in the process of
communication.

1
BASIS HEARING LISTENING

Meaning Hearing refers to Listening is something done

one's ability to consciously, that involves
perceive sounds, by the analysis and
receiving vibrations understanding of the sounds
through ears. you hear.

It is An ability A skill

Nature Primary and Secondary and temporary

continuous

Act Physiological Psychological

Involves Receipt of message Interpretation of the message

through ears. received by ears.

Process Passive bodily process Active mental process

Occurs at Subconscious level Conscious level

Senses Only one(EAR) More than one (EAR, MIND,

EYES etc.)

Reason We are neither aware We listen to acquire

nor do we have any knowledge and receive
control over the sounds information.
we hear.
Concentration Not required Required

2
MODES OF LISTENING

There are three basic listening models, each of which reflect upon the various ways that the
person who is doing the listening may be feeling. You may use all three of these listening
models at one point or another, depending upon whom you are listening to, what the
conversation is about, and even what type of mood you are in.

Here are the three basic listening models:

1. Competitive or combative listening: This is the type of listening that is done when
people want to push their own type of view or opinion rather than listen to someone else's.
With this type of listening, we mostly are waiting to jump in and say something or point out
flaws in what the other person is saying. We pretend that we are listening, when really we
are formulating our own ideas and just waiting for the person to break so we can blurt
them out. The downside is that we fail to actually take in what the other person is saying
and have closed our minds, which is a barrier to good listening.

2. Passive, attentive listening: In this type of listening, we are genuinely interested in

what the person is saying. At this point, we are not yet at the point of responding and being
involved, but we understand the points that the speaker is trying to make. We may agree
with what is being said, but we are doing so in a passive manner, rather than in a reflective
one.

3. Active, reflective listening: This is the type of listening model that you want to use. In
this model, you actively listen and understand what the other person is saying. Here, we
listen to what the other person has to say before we try to interject what we would like to
share. In this model, you restate or share back information with the speaker, showing that
you are paying attention and actively involved.

Active listening:
Active listening refers to a pattern of listening that keeps you engaged with your
conversation partner in a positive way. It is the process of listening attentively while
someone else speaks, paraphrasing and reflecting back what is said, and withholding
judgment and advice. It is a technique that is used in counseling, training, and solving
disputes or conflicts. It requires the listener to fully concentrate, understand, respond and
then remember what is being said. This helps in recognizing other's perspectives and
feelings and appreciating them. This not only helps in resolving conflicts but also helps
foster a culture of respect. Try to understand others' perspectives before responding.
There are three major components to Active listening are:-
3
● Comprehend: The listener pays attention to the speaker's verbal and non-verbal
language to fully understand what they're trying to communicate.
● Retain: The listener tries to remember key points of the speaker's message using their
memory or via note-taking.
● Respond: The listener tries to answer the speaker’s message as per his/her
understanding of meanings.

The benefits of active listening

Professional benefits:
● Connecting listening skills to better leadership.
● Better understand and make connections between ideas and information.
● Change perspectives and challenge assumptions.
● Empathize and show respect or appreciation, which can enhance our
relationships; and build self-esteem.
● Can also help in making better impressions on employers.

For Example: At the interview you really want the job, but you are really nervous. As a
result, you are having trouble paying attention to what the CEO of the company is saying in
your final interview. She asks you if you have any questions, and you ask something you
were wondering about in the elevator on the way up to this penthouse office. You’re
unlikely to get the job if you ask something she’s just talked about. Even if you, somehow,
convince her to hire you, you will make little progress at the firm if your supervisors often
have to tell you things again, or you make decisions that cost the company in lost profits
because you weren’t listening effectively in a team meeting.

Hence, active listening can well be the difference between profit and
loss, between success and failure, between a long career and a short one.

ART OF LISTENING:
We turn to various forms of listening modes during communication, in different situations
depending on moods, mindset, topic, time of the day, relevance and importance. The
following things discussed below will help us to identify the difference between Active and
Passive listeners as well as helping us to develop the active listening skills. There are three
"A’s", which are attitude, attention and adjustment, play a key role in listening skills.
Once you understand how these impact your listening, they most likely will stay in your
mind and keep you on your toes when it comes to the times you need them the most.

4
 3 A’s of Listening: Attention, Attitude AND Adjustment
Effective listening is about self-awareness. You must pay attention to whether or not you
are only hearing, passively listening, or actively engaging. Effective listening requires
concentration and a focused effort that is known as active listening. Active listening can be
broken down into three main elements.

1. Attention

You know that attention is the fundamental difference between hearing and
listening. Paying attention to what a speaker is saying requires intentional effort on your
part. Nichols, credited with first researching the field of listening, observed, “listening is
hard work. It is characterized by faster heart action, quicker circulation of the blood, a
small rise in bodily temperature.” Consider that you can process information four times
faster than the rate at which a person speaks. Yet, tests of listening comprehension show
the average person listening at only 25% efficiency. A typical person can speak 125 words-
per-minute, yet we can process up to three times faster, reaching as much as 500 words-
per-minute. The poor listener grows impatient, while the effective listener uses the extra
processing time to process the speaker’s words, distinguish key points, and mentally
summarize them (Nichols, 1957).

While reading a book, or having a discussion with an individual, you can go back and reread
or ask a question to clarify a point. This is not always true when listening. Listening is of the
moment, and we often only get to hear the speaker’s words once. The key then is for the
listener to ascertain the speaker’s central premise or controlling idea quickly. Once the
listener has, it becomes easier for the listener to discern what is most important.

Hoppe tells us that active listening is really a state of mind requiring us to choose to focus
on the moment, being present and attentive while disregarding any of our anxieties of the
day.

Here’s an example: John knows that he has trouble staying focused during long business
meetings. He has run into issues in the past where he has missed information he needed.
So, John decided that he needs to improve his listening skills. At meetings, he started to
volunteer to keep the minutes. He found that by keeping the minutes, he had to focus on
specific details. The first time he took the minutes, John received feedback that he was
missing details. So, John decided to keep recording the minutes and, eventually, did a great
job. He learned how to identify the key points and main premise. He also found that he was
better able to remember various details, which, ultimately, supported his work and
bolstered his self-esteem.

Such memory devices can assist with your listening skills. You might think that you do not
have a problem with actively listening. You will find that listening is one area that can
always be improved and strengthened. Challenge yourself to take minutes, class notes that
5
 are shared, or journal a relationship interaction. Write out the details and share them for
confirmation on how you are doing. You can track how you improve over time. Some of the
main areas to pay attention to are distinguishing the speaker’s primary goal, the main
points, and the structure of the communication. These are all easier to discern when the
listener is able to listen with an open mind.

2. Attitude
Even if you are paying attention, you could be doing so with the wrong attitude.
Attitude is just as important as the attention given to the speaker. Telling yourself the
lecture is a waste of time is not going to help you to listen effectively. You’ll be better off
deciding on an internal motivation to be attentive to the person speaking. Approaching the
task of listening with a positive attitude and an open-mind will make the act of listening
much easier. Bad listeners make snap judgments that justify the decision to be inattentive.
Yet, since you’re already there, why not listen to see what you can learn? Kaponya warns
against psychological deaf spots that impair our ability to perceive and understand things
counter to our convictions. These moments can be as little as a word or phrase that might
cause “an emotional eruption” causing communication efficiency to drop rapidly. For
instance, someone who resolutely supports military action as the best response to a
terrorist action may be unable to listen objectively to a speaker endorsing negotiation as a
better tool. Even if the speaker is effectively employing logic, drawing on credible sources,
and appealing to emotion with a heartrending tale of the civilian casualties caused by
bombings, this listener would be unable to keep an open mind. Failing to acknowledge your
deaf spots will leave you at a deficit when listening.

You will always need to make up your own mind about where you stand—whether you
agree or disagree with the speaker—but it is critical to do so after listening. Adler proposes
having four questions in mind while listening: “What is the whole speech about?” “What are
the main or pivotal ideas, conclusions, and arguments?” “Are the speaker’s conclusions
sound or mistaken?”, and “What of it?” Once you have an overall idea of the speech,
determine the key points, and gauge your agreement, you can decide why it matters, how it
affects you, or what you might do as a result of what you have heard. Yet, he notes it is
“impossible” to answer all these questions at the same time as you are listening. Instead,
you have to be ready and willing to pay attention to the speaker’s point of view and
changes in direction, patiently waiting to see where the speaker is leading you.

3. Adjustment
Adjustment in listening is important. Adjustment means that the listener is willing
to change, adapt, and adjust mannerisms in order to follow the speaker’s train of thought
until the conclusion. Speakers could engage in storytelling with twists and turns with no
end in sight. Speakers could also deliver the message very directly and fast. Of course, there
are a myriad of ways in which a speaker could communicate. No matter the speaker’s style,
you, the listener, must adjust your listening to create meaning. You need to listen to the
words, utterances, and pauses to know when to give nonverbal feedback, such as “I’m
6
bored” or “wow, I didn’t know that.” You should adjust to the speaker and listen without
drifting off.

Communication requires that each person have the presence of mind to focus upon the
words to ensure shared meaning. Likewise, in a speech, the audience needs to adjust and
focus so as to demonstrate that there is a shared meaning. The speaker’s role is to capture
your attention and deliver a stimulating speech. The listener’s role is to pay attention, have
a positive attitude and adjust to what is said. The speaker relies on the audience to provide
visual cues to know that the audience is listening and that there is a shared understanding
of what is being presented.

For example, imagine you are at work. Your boss called a meeting where the human
resources (HR) director is giving a presentation on changes to HR policy. This presentation
might not seem like exciting information on the surface; however, this is where you
recognize how you feel and start to work upon your attitude. You have choices on how you
plan to listen to the director. You could plan to be bored or inconvenienced. You could also
plan to be interested and educated.

Once you have chosen how you plan to listen to the director, you then have to choose how
you plan to pay attention to the speaker. You may decide to listen partially and get the
PowerPoint later. You could decide to listen fully and not wait for the slide deck. Finally,
once you are in the meeting, you can adjust your attitude and attention based upon the
speaker’s style and personal interest in their subject. If the speaker does not present well,
you could use one of the active listening strategies discussed later in this section to make
sure that you do listen. You could also frame the experience as practice that will help
increase your active listening skills. The act of reframing how to listen is foundational to
improving your attention, attitude, and adjustment.

How to be an Active Listener?

● Paying Attention: We often listen to communication in an unconscious manner;

(watching TV while eating or talking). By not being active improper listening is very
harmful as communication is prone to distortion, which will also lead to waste of time.
The active listener shows keenness through expressions, alertness and appropriate
body language by asking questions about speech, and if required express their ideas as
well.
● Physical Appearance: expressions, bodily movement and postures play an important
role in conveying meaning. They are involuntary therefore truthful. In order to enhance
listening skills, one should pay attention to physical messages conveyed by the speaker
in order to assess accuracy and sincerity in the speech.
● Focus on the Speaker: try to focus on the flow of the thought and try to ignore other
feelings like take equal interest in the speeches as speakers. As a wise listener one must
7
 look for valid reasons for criticism, adopting a receptive and constructive attitude to
criticism can lead to self-improvement.
● Dealing with distractions: one often faces distractions due to presence of an attractive
face in the room, or with the smell of perfume, also with the period of continuous
learning people get tired and lose interest in the messages, it feels hard to stay with the
messages it is called “brain time”. To overcome the distraction, one should try to stay
active by anticipating, try to grasp and recall the speech better, exercise mental
discipline to remain focused on the message. Don’t focus on fragmented messages and
don’t interrupt the speaker in between, never jump to conclusions. Effective listening is
possible only when the listener patiently listens to the complete speech, puts conscious
efforts, shows no awkward postures, and is mentally prepared with energy and a
positive attitude.
● Positive Attitude: More often it can happen that the speaker is communicating ideas
contrary to your belief system or you are simply not interested in whatever the speaker
wants to communicate. This creates mental block towards the message that speaker
wants to communicate. So must try to keep an open mind and adjust your attitude to at
least listen to the complete message of the speaker. This helps in receiving possible new
information and opinions and that might enrich your perspective about things.
● Response/Feedback: Feedback is the most essential aspect of the communication
loop. Feedback motivates the speaker to pursue his speech and reassures him that you
are attentively listening. It helps you to connect with the speaker. In active listening,
which is modeling good listening skills; you will want to provide feedback to the person
speaking. By doing so, you are letting that person know you are paying attention and
are interested in what she or he is saying. Here is what a short dialogue may look like
when someone is actively listening and providing feedback:

Lisa: I need to find a new job; this one just isn't working anymore.
John: You don't like your job?
Lisa: No, there are just too many things that have changed.
John: So the changes are making you feel uncomfortable?

As you see, John is providing feedback, so that Lisa knows he is actively listening.
Providing feedback does not mean you have to be prepared to provide advice or
present any facts. You may not have anything to add to what the person is saying,
such as in the conversation between Lisa and John. Just providing that feedback,
however, goes a long way in showing that you care about what the person is
saying.

8
Dos and Don'ts in Listening:
Dos --

 Mentally prepared.
 Understanding.
 Evaluating speech not the speaker.
 Unbiased to the speaker.
 Fight distractions.
 Be open minded.
 Ask questions (for clarity).
 Paraphrase from time to time.
 Send appropriate nonverbal signals.

Don'ts –

 Undue emphasis on the vocabulary.

 Too much attention to clothes, accessories etc.
 Prepare your responses while the speaker is speaking just to supersede.
 Hold prejudices.
 Distracted by outside influences.
 Concentrate too hard.
 Interrupt too often.
 Show boredom.

Traits of an Effective/ Active/ Good Listener:

 Listens without distractions.
 Keeps eyes on the speaker to communicate interest.
 Concentrate on what's being said.
 Don't pre-judge the message(s).
 Avoids interrupting.
 Interjects only to enhance understanding using “what” and “how” questions.
 Summarizes for clarity.
 Reads and reacts properly to emotions.
 Uses positive body language; head nodding, eye contact, body lean.
 Listen for what is unsaid.
 Allows for silence when appropriate.
 Creates an atmosphere for unhurried conversation.

Why Effective/Active Listening Matters?

By listening more effectively, listener gets more honest information from the people they
manage; increase others' trust in them; reduce conflict; better understand how
to motivate others; and, inspire a higher level of commitment in the people they lead.
Essentially, leaders build better relationships by listening more effectively.

9
TYPES OF LISTENING:
1. Discriminative listening: It is first developed at a very early age perhaps even before
birth, in the womb. This is the most basic form of listening and does not involve the
understanding of the meaning of words or phrases but merely the different sounds
that are produced. In early childhood, for example, a distinction is made between the
sounds of the voices of the parents – the voice of the father sounds different to that of
the mother. We also develop the ability to recognize subtle differences in the way that
sounds are made – this is fundamental to ultimately understanding what these sounds
mean. Differences include many subtleties, recognizing foreign languages,
distinguishing between regional accents and clues to the emotions and feelings of the
speaker. Being able to distinguish the subtleties of sound made by somebody who is
happy or sad, angry or stressed, for example, ultimately adds value to what is actually
being said and aids communication.
2. Comprehensive listening: it involves understanding the message or messages that
are being communicated. In order to be able use comprehensive listening and
therefore gain understanding the listener first needs appropriate vocabulary and
language skills. This problem can be multiplied in a group setting, like a classroom or
business meeting where numerous different meanings can be derived from what has
been said. Comprehensive listening is complemented by sub-messages from non-
verbal communication, such as the tone of voice, gestures and other body language.
These non-verbal signals can greatly aid communication and comprehension but can
also confuse and potentially lead to misunderstanding. In many listening situations, it
is vital to seek clarification and use skills such as reflection aid comprehension.
3. Informational listening: Whenever you listen to learn something, you are engaged in
informational listening. For example:- in day-to-day situations, in education and at
work, when you listen to the news, watch a documentary, when a friend tells you a
recipe etc. Informational listening is less active than many of the other types of
listening. When we’re listening to learn or be instructed we are taking in new
information and facts, we are not criticizing or analyzing. Informational listening,
especially in formal settings like in work meetings or while in education, is often
accompanied by note taking – a way of recording key information so that it can be
reviewed later.
4. Critical listening: In critical listening, the goal is to evaluate or scrutinize what is
being said. Critical listening is a much more active behavior than informational
listening and usually involves some sort of problem solving or decision-making. Our
opinions, values and beliefs are based on our ability to process information and
formulate our own feelings about the world around us. It is often important, when
listening critically to have an open-mind and not be biased by stereotypes or
preconceived ideas. By doing we will become a better listener and broaden our
10
 knowledge as well as perception of other people and relationships.
5. Empathic listening:- It involves attempting to understand the feelings and emotions
of the speaker – to put yourself into the speaker’s shoes and share their thoughts.
Different from sympathy it involves a deeper connection – a realization and
understanding of another person’s point of view. Showing empathy is a desirable trait
in many interpersonal relationships – we may well feel more comfortable talking
about our own feelings and emotions with a particular person. They are likely to be
better at listening empathetically to us than others; this is often because of similar
perspectives, experiences, beliefs and values – a good friend, your spouse, a parent or
sibling for example.

BARRIERS TO LISTENING
By this point, you have been introduced to what listening skills are and the basics of
listening models and skills. In order to really be a good listener, it is important to
understand some of the most common barriers to listening. Once you know these, it makes
identifying and addressing them much easier.

Common Listening Barriers

While the following list does not encompass all the possible barriers that may exist, it does
include the most common barriers you are likely to see and identify with. The more you
understand the barriers to listening, the more likely you are to be successful in avoiding
them.

Boredom: People find it difficult to concentrate on what is being said when they are not
interested in the topic or they are simply bored.

Internal issues: People often are distracted by what is going on internally, such as having a
headache, being hungry, or not feeling well. All of these issues will make it more difficult to
listen.

Knowing it all: If you are listening to someone and you believe you already know what
they are going to say or the answer to what they are speaking about, you are more likely to
shut out what they are saying. This is another example of why it is important to approach
listening with an open mind.

Being preoccupied: If you have something else on your mind, it will be more difficult to
think about what is being said around you. What your mind is preoccupied with is likely to
keep creeping back into your thoughts, stealing your focus. Being preoccupied and
daydreaming are both issues that will prevent effective listening.

11
Environmental distractions
One of the most common things that prevents people from actually listening is the
distractions that are going on around them. These environmental distractions, whether
music, television, telephones, or the sound of a vacuum down the hallway, can be a big
enough distraction that it makes concentration difficult for someone trying to listen.

Perception: If listeners have any bias or prejudice regarding the speaker or subject matter,
it is likely that they will be focusing on their disapproval rather than what is actually being
said. This is why it is important to approach listening with an open mind and relaxed
attitude. Listeners' emotions play a big role in how they perceive what they are listening to,
as well as the speaker.

Red flag words: There are particular words that are hot-button issues with most people. If
someone is listening to someone else speak and hears particular words that the listener
may be sensitive to, it could put the focus on that and become a distraction. If someone is
emotional, he or she will have a more difficult time listening.

Language barriers: If there are language barriers, such as someone not being a native
English-speaker or having a speech problem, it can create difficulty in how the listener
takes in what is being said. Language barriers also can make it challenging for the listener
to stay interested in the speaker and resist daydreaming.

Attention span issues: As previously mentioned, if someone suffers from a medical

condition that prevents or makes it difficult for the person to pay attention, she or he most
likely will not be able to listen very well. People with attention span challenges can work on
trying to improve and also see a doctor for Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) testing if they
feel there may be a medical reason for their difficulties.

ADDRESSING THE BARRIERS

The common barriers to listening listed above can be addressed to improve your skills.
Here are some tips:

● Keep an open attitude so that you are free of bias, prejudice, or emotions that may
complicate your experience.
● Approach speakers by giving them the same respect that you would hope someone
gives you. Adhere to the old saying that we should treat others how we would want
to be treated. If you would find it offensive for people to snap their gum and look at
their shoes as you are explaining something, then be sure not to engage in such
activity yourself. Putting yourself in the other person's shoes is a sure way to focus
12
 on the way in which you should listen.
● Eliminate environmental distractions, including background noise. If you have the
ability to reduce or eliminate the distractions, you should make the effort.
● Be patient, especially if someone is having difficulty getting his or her point across
or there is a language barrier. If you allow people the time to work through what
they are trying to say, they will be more successful.
● Work on ways to focus your attention and improve your attention span. Being able
to pay attention, even if it is a topic that does not interest you, will make your
listening experience more beneficial.

Listening and Note Taking Strategies

Taking effective notes in lectures, tutorials, meetings, etc. is an essential skill for studies as
well as professional life. Good note-taking allows a permanent record of key information
that you can integrate with your own writing, and use for various purposes. Taking reliable,
accurate notes also reduces the risk of plagiarizing. It helps you distinguish where your
ideas came from and how and what you think about those ideas.

Six good reasons to take notes

 Notes are a useful record of key information, and the sources of that information.
 Writing notes helps you remember what you heard.
 Taking notes helps you to concentrate and listen effectively.
 Selecting what to note down increases your understanding.
 Notes create a resource for exam preparation, presentations, report writing and
other relevant purposes.
 Notes taken in classes, lectures, meetings, conferences, etc. often contain
information that can’t be found elsewhere.

Techniques and Tips for Listening and Note Taking

Write phrases, not full sentences. Only record the key words that you need to get the
idea of the point. Skip words like “the” and “a” that don’t add additional meaning to the
content. Retain key technical or discipline-specific terms.

Take notes in your own words. Paraphrase what you hear so it makes sense to you—it
helps you to understand and remember what you hear. Try to paraphrase everything
except where information needs to be noted exactly.

13
Structure your notes with headings, subheadings and numbered lists. Use headings to
indicate topic areas or to include bibliographic details of the sources of information. Use
outline form and/or a numbering system and indenting to help you distinguish major from
minor points and as a clear way of indicating the structure of information.

Code your notes—use colours and symbols to mark structure and emphasis. Use
colour to highlight major sections, main points and diagrams. You can also use different
colours to classify and link concepts or information by topic. However, don’t focus too
much on colour coding when you’re in the meeting. It requires time and concentration, so
it’s more useful to do most of the highlighting and underlining when you’re revising your
notes later.

Underline, circle, star, etc. to identify key information, examples, definitions, or other
important materials. Devise your own marking code to indicate each type.

If you miss something, write key words, skip a few spaces, and get the information later.
Leave a space on the page for your own notes and comments.

Use Symbols and Abbreviations

Symbols and abbreviations for frequently used words, phrases or names are useful for note
taking in lectures when speed is essential. It’s important to be consistent so you remember
what they represent and can use them easily. Keep a ‘key list’ of frequently used
symbols/abbreviations and their meanings so that you can refer to them in the future.

Abbreviations and acronyms for note taking

1. Common etc. (etcetera) = and the rest para = paragraph

e.g. = for example ch. = chapter

info = information no. = number

i.e. = that is diff = different

n.b. =note well, important C19 = nineteenth century

p = page (pp = pages)

14
2. Discipline-Specific These should be whatever is frequently used in your field of
study.

In chemistry: Au for gold, Mg for magnesium.

In the case of quantities and concepts, these are represented

by Greek letters in many fields.

A or a (alpha) B or b (beta)

3. Personal Develop your own set so that you don’t have to write every
word in full. You can shorten any word that is commonly
used in your lectures.

 Gov. = government
 nec. = necessary

Work out a system you’ll remember and use it consistently.

Introduce a few symbols and abbreviations at a time to help
you remember them.

4. Acronyms Some abbreviations are so well known and widely used that
they have become acronyms—abbreviations pronounced as
words. For example:

Laser = Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of

Radiation

ABC = Australian Broadcasting Corporation

15
Symbols for note taking

Use concept maps and diagrams

Information can also be recorded using a concept map or diagram. Try drawing diagrams
or pictures for concepts that are hard to note quickly. For instance, draw a pie chart to
roughly indicate the relative strength of political parties in an election instead of writing
these details out. Information can be added to the concept map later.

Concept maps can easily become cluttered. Use both facing pages of an open A4 notebook
to set out your concept map and allow plenty of space for adding ideas and symbols.

 Begin in the middle of the page and add ideas on branches that radiate from the
central idea or from previous branches.
 Arrows and words can be used to show links between parts of the concept map.
16
  Colour and symbols are important parts of concept maps, helping illustrate ideas
and triggering your own thoughts.

Examples

TED TALKS

A TED talk is a recorded public speaking presentation that was originally given at
the main TED (technology, entertainment and design) annual event or one of its many
satellite events around the world.
TED is a nonprofit devoted to spreading ideas, usually in the form of short,
powerful talks, often “TED Talks”. The TED orginazation was founded by Richard Saul
Wurman, and the TED conference was co-founded by Harry Marks in February 1984. The
first TED conference was in 1984 and the conference has been held annually since 1990.
Initially, the focus of the TED conference was technology, design and entertainment.

17
However, Ted has broadened its focus in recent years to include big ideas on a wider range
of topics such as global issues, business, education, health, personal growth, etc. TED talks
are given by a variety of professionals from various fields of study, including actors,
scientists, medical professionals, influencers, etc.

(Note-taking while listening to any audio of TED talks or watch their video is same
as taking notes from any tutorial or lecture or conference.)

PRONUNCIATION
Pronunciation is a way in which a word or a language is spoken. This may refer to generally
agreed-upon sequences of sounds used in speaking of a given word or of a language in a
specific dialect or simply the way a particular individual speaks a word or language. It can
also be defined as the phonetic transcription of a given word, sound etc. A word can be
spoken in different ways by various individuals or groups, depending on many factors, such
as: the duration of the cultural exposure of their childhood, the location of their current
residence, speech or voice disorders, their ethnic group, their social class, or their
education. Proper pronunciation is the key to mastering the English language. Without
correct pronunciation, the vocabulary that you know will be less effective when
communicating.

The reasons for practicing pronunciation are numerous and significant:

● Improving your pronunciation helps with reading, writing and communication.

● A better understanding of pronunciation leads to less confusion, especially during
conversations.
● Most importantly, it’s a sign of progress and it makes you feel more comfortable and
confident while communicating in English.

Some ways to master the English pronunciation:

1. Know what you want to sound like: English uses many diverse sounds. The
pronunciation of English can vary dramatically from one region to the next. For
example, the United Kingdom is rich with different accents that carry their own
personalities. Depending on where you go and how long you’re going to be there,
the first step to take is to understand how the locals sound. Practice sounding like
they do. This will help one to fit in and fully understand what they’re saying. If you
don’t know anybody who speaks in the accent you want to speak, then keep

18
 watching videos available on the internet.
2. Focus on Words That Are Giving You Trouble and Break Them Down:

One always feels being bumped into a long, confusing mass of letters. Features
include its spelling, syllables and meaning. What you’ll want to do is take that long
and complicated word and break it apart into pieces. Then slowly put it back
together, known as ‘syllable breakdown’. For example: one of the most commonly
mispronounced words in the English language is February. People keep
pronouncing it as Feb-yu-airy. If you look closely, you’ll notice the r in the middle,
and breaking it down reveals that it’s actually pronounced Feb-ru-airy. Examples:
 assistant = ass / is / tant (3 syllables)
 organisation = or/ gan /i / sa/ tion (5syllables)
 adventure = ad/ven/ture
 future= fu/ture
 temperature= tem/pe/ra /ture

3. Read Out Loud and Record Yourself:

The best way to make progress in any challenge is to keep track of your
improvements. For practicing English pronunciation, the best way to do this is to
record yourself reading and speaking loudly and clearly, giving yourself a great
reference for progress. Once you get over the sound of your own voice, you’ll find
yourself making greater strides than you would otherwise. When you record
yourself speaking English months or years in the future, then you’ll really hear how
much you’ve improved.

4. Listen Closely to the Music of Words:

Everything in life follows some form of organization. Life has a strong rhythm.
Otherwise, everything would be random and unorganized. Just as we memorize
and understand songs and other pieces of music by listening closely to the lyrics
and other features, we can also master difficult words by listening carefully to their
rhythm and the way certain syllables sound. Words change with emotions, and
listening to how words are spoken will also tell you more than just their meaning.
The intonation, or tone of words, affects their meaning. Depending on which part of
a word is stressed, and where it’s placed in a sentence, it can either be a noun or a
verb. Understanding this could even make a word’s pronunciation clearer. For
example, the words refuse and refuse. If it’s heard as REH-fyuz, then we’re talking
about garbage (noun), but if it’s heard as reh-FYUZ, then it means saying “no” or
declining something (verb).

19
 5. Communication is Key: Always Practice with Someone
The best way to speak English like a native is to actually speak with one. Whenever
you’re in class or taking a walk in the park, make sure that you’re only speaking
English. Google is a great example of this: people from all over the world come
together in a global classroom as both students and teachers. This makes it a
comfortable and fun environment to improve your pronunciation, and also to make
new friends from across the world.

6. Watch the News:

While you may not love to watch the news all the time, you can use it as a great tool
for mastering your pronunciation. Newscasters tend to speak slowly and clearly to
deliver their messages. If subtitles are available, this makes things even better.
Watching the news helps to put English words in their usual contexts and allows
you to hear what they sound like in real life.

7. Tongue twisters: To enhance the pronunciation, tongue twisters are a great way
to practice and improve pronunciation and fluency. They can also help to improve
accents by using alliteration, which is the repetition of one sound. For example --
1. How much wood would a woodchuck chuck if a woodchuck could chuck wood?

2. Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers. How many pickled

peppers did Peter Piper pick?

3. She saw Sharif's shoes on the sofa. But was she so sure those were
Sharif's shoes she saw?
4. Betty Botter bought some butter, but she said the butter’s bitter
5. If I put it in my batter, it will make my batter bitter, But a bit of better
butter will make my batter better.

Stress in English Language:

In linguistics, and particularly phonology, stress or accent is the relative emphasis or
prominence given to a certain syllable in a word or to a certain word in a phrase or
sentence. This emphasis is typically caused by such properties as increased loudness and
vowel length, full articulation of the vowel, and changes in tone. The stress placed on
syllables within words is called word stress or lexical stress. The stress on the word is
helpful in learning pronunciation.

Intonation also deals with the stress of words. Words are stressed to make a certain emphasis.
A sentence can be spoken differently, depending on the speaker's intention. For Example:
20
I did not read anything about the disaster.
I did not read anything about the disaster.
I did not read anything about the disaster.
I did not read anything about the disaster.
I did not read anything about the disaster.
I did not read anything about the disaster.

Speaking Styles: 5 Styles of Communication

If you want to become an effective communicator, you need to learn the 5 styles of
communication and identify the ones you use every day in your interactions. The 5 styles of
communication have been categorized into assertive, aggressive, passive-aggressive,
submissive and manipulative. Here is what you need to know about the 5 styles of
communication.

1. Assertive communication style

In this style of communication, a person calmly and confidently speaks out her thoughts or
ideas without being dominative, passive or aggressive.

This is considered to be the most effective communication style.

A person using this style is confident in their convictions but makes sure that they do not
belittle or steamroll others in the conversation.

They do not resort to manipulation or pushing limits, rather they seek compromise and
consensus through active listening and clearly expressing their wants or needs.

Assertive communicators tend to have naturally high self-esteem, and they do not veer into
passive or aggressive communication.

A hallmark of assertive communication is the use of “I” statements, such as “I feel as though
you interrupting me during the client meeting undermined my expertise,” rather than “You
need to be quiet during client meetings since you insist on interrupting constantly“.

This style of communication is recommended in most business settings.

Calm, measured, and positive, many situations can be handled, and problems solved, by
proactively using assertive communication.
21
How can you become a more assertive communicator?

 Speak from a place of confidence. If you’re not a naturally confident person, fake it
‘till you make it! You know best what you need to be successful, trust in yourself.
 Consider both your needs and the needs of those you are communicating with. Try
to be solution-oriented, positive, and sensitive to the other person’s point of view.
 Take a look at your verbs. Don’t sugarcoat things or soften them. Say “will” instead
of “could” or “should“. Think of how different these two sentences sound: “I will
take the lead on this project.” vs. “I could take the lead on this project.”
How can you effectively work with an assertive communicator?

 Give them the space to talk. They will let you know their ideas and their solutions,
you just need to listen and give them the chance to communicate.
 Ask them what they think, and do not dismiss them if they are critical. If they think
you are wasting their time, they will not bother being helpful to you.
 Expect them to ask for your thoughts as well. They want a conversation and are
solution-oriented. Bring your own solutions and criticisms and expect there to be a
respectful conversation.

2. Aggressive communication style

This communication style can be hostile, threatening, and comes from a place of wanting to
win at all costs.

An aggressive communicator behaves as if their contribution to the conversation is more

important than anyone else, and the content of their message is often lost because of the
tone of their delivery.

This type of communication can result in people feeling belittled, steamrolled, and
intimidated.

In some cases, they may reactively push back at an aggressive communicator, not because
the communicator is incorrect, but simply because the delivery of the message is so
unpleasant that they instinctively disagree.

This type of communication has been observed in some business leaders, who can control
their style enough to come across as bold, rather than domineering, but that takes skill.

In day-to-day operations, this is not a style that will endear someone to their colleagues,
and it is advised that this style is avoided in most cases.

22
How to adjust your aggressive style to communicate better?

 The confidence of an aggressive communicator is very close to the self-assurance of

the assertive communicator. The big difference is that an assertive communicator
values the other person’s feelings, where an aggressive communicator does not.
Switch your style by considering how your request – and the way that you deliver it
– will affect the person you’re speaking to.
 Take a look at your body language. Aggressive communicators use physical
proximity, tone of voice, and gestures to underline their power in the conversation.
This is not going to help your communication succeed. Step back, and tone it down.
Colleagues will respond much better to a new, calmer conversational style.
 Change your point of view. You don’t want to ‘win’ the conversation, you want to
solve the problem. There’s a much better chance of doing so if you work with others.
How can you effectively work with an aggressive communicator?

 This is a tough one. Aggressive communicators are notoriously difficult to work

with. If you are unable to help them adjust their style, then prepare yourself for their
blunt tone and unpleasant delivery.
 If you are in a position that you can advise the person on their behavior, introducing
them to the communication styles, and the advice given above on adjusting it, could
be a fruitful conversation.
 Get them down to business immediately, and try to streamline the conversation so
that it doesn’t wander off into unpleasant or irrelevant topics.

3. Passive communication style

This type of communication is also known as the submissive communication style. Another
way of describing it is the “people-pleaser” type.

This type of communication is self-effacing, conflict-avoidant, and easy-going.

That’s not to say that a passive communicator is always happy – in fact, this style of
communication can lead to resentment building up over time because the person is unable
to clearly communicate their opinions, needs, and wants.

Passive communicators tend to step back and let other, more assertive or aggressive,
people lead the way.

They can find it difficult to effectively express themselves, and want to avoid confrontation
at all costs. This can directly lead to their good ideas never being heard, or for
miscommunications to come up.

23
In business, this style of communication can be used in reaction to aggressive
communication, especially when handling a client or other person with whom other styles
of communication are not working.

However, within a team or department, managers should work to help passive

communicators access a more assertive style, so their valuable insights and ideas do not get
passed over.

How to adjust your passive style to communicate better?

 Be confident in the value of your contributions. If this is difficult for you, try the fake
it ‘till you make it advice we gave above for those hoping to become more assertive.
Start small and build your confidence.
 Learn the value of “No“. You can only take on so much work, and being able to set
healthy workplace boundaries will help you be able to make sure your plate is not
being overloaded by those looking to take advantage of your people-pleasing nature.
 You’re already good at compromise, but make sure that you are not compromising
everything. Look for solutions where everyone can win, and offer them up.
How can you effectively work with a passive communicator?

 Directly ask their opinions on subjects. Give them space within the conversation to
offer their views, and allow them the time to properly express them.
 Do not dismiss their ideas. They are working hard to build their confidence, if an
idea won’t work, point out the value of the idea and highlight the positive aspects of
it, rather than cutting them down with a short “Well, that won’t work.”
 Keep conversations positive and solution-oriented. Don’t be angry or
confrontational, that will cause them to shut down completely.

4. Passive-aggressive communication style

This style of communication, like the name suggests, combines aspects of both passive and
aggressive communication styles.

The passive exists on the surface, while the aggressive simmers beneath.

Outwardly, the communicator seems sweet and easy-going, but they are operating from a
place of anger and resentment.

This bubbles up and can be shown through using sarcasm, being patronizing, starting
rumors, or gossiping.

24
Their frustration comes out through these indirect routes, but they will have the same
effect as someone who is straightforwardly aggressive; colleagues will not want to work
with them.

This style tends to be very toxic in the workplace, spreading discontent and resentment
throughout the team or department.

There are no times that this style of communication is appropriate in a business setting. If
there are communicators in your organization those defaults to this style, it is key that they
are helped to readjust to a less disruptive style.

How to adjust your passive-aggressive style to communicate better?

 Pinpoint where your anger comes from. Do you feel like your team doesn’t listen to
you? Do you feel like your contributions are overlooked? Find out the issue, and
communicate this with your manager.
 Look at your motivation when communicating. Are you coming from a place of
wanting to help solve the problem, or are you lashing out? Adjust how you approach
conversations and try to focus on positive, solution-oriented statements instead.
 Understand that business relationships can be complicated. Confidently and
consistently approaching conversations in a positive and pleasant manner can
improve your work life dramatically. You can’t control how people act towards you,
but you can control how you react to them. Changing the style of communication can
bring a sea change to your relationships at work.
How can you effectively work with a passive-aggressive communicator?

 Try to understand their motivations, if possible. If there is an outside force causing

them to communicate this way, then it could be within your power to help solve that
problem. Do they consistently use this style when dealing with an aggressive
communicator? Does this only happen when they are faced with short deadlines?
Think about what is causing this to happen.

 Don’t meet them with the same style. It can be tempting to respond in kind, but that
continues an unhealthy cycle of communication. Instead, focus on assertive
communication. If you offer responses that highlight their contribution, offer win-win
solutions, and do not belittle them, they will see the value of a different type of
communication style.

 Focus on their message and rephrase it in an assertive manner. Change the tone while
demonstrating the communication style you would prefer their message to be
delivered in.

25
5. Manipulative communication style

This style of communication uses cunning, deceit and influence to control the outcome of
the conversation, and thus the actions of the people around them.

Manipulative communicators rarely say what they mean, instead they will bury their real
goals within layers of obfuscation to get their way without the other person even realizing
it.

This style is often characterized as insincere and patronizing, and when people realize that
they have been played by a manipulator, they will not respond well to that person in future
communications.

While some manipulation could come in useful in a customer-facing role where there is a
need to calm down an irritated client, this style will lead to some clashes within teams or
departments if one employee is using it consistently.

Where possible, a manipulative communicator should be steered into assertive

communication.

Manipulators know what they want to achieve and has clear goals, they are just not taking
the best path to get there. By prioritizing everyone’s needs, not just their own, they could
achieve better results without upsetting colleagues.

How to adjust your manipulative style to communicate better?

 Work on being more direct with your wants and needs. Practice asking directly for
what you would like, and having grace if the answer is not what you would like.
 Understand that this style of communication quickly breeds resentment among
colleagues. As you adjust your style, expect them to be a bit wary of your
motivations! Be consistent in your change, and remember to look for solutions
that benefit everyone, not just you.
 Stay away from using emotional arguments. Be factual, precise, and direct in your
communication.
How can you effectively work with a manipulative communicator?

 As with an aggressive communicator, you should endeavor to steer them into

assertive communication. You could try redirecting them when they try to use
emotional arguments, not allowing them to derail the conversation towards their
own goals and doggedly sticking to the topic of the conversation.
 Don’t respond to them with criticism, rather use the assertive restating tactic to
clarify what they are saying while demonstrating the way you wish them to say it.

26
 You will have to be vigilant with these types of communicators that they do not
sneakily introduce their agenda into conversations.
 Use your patience and stay calm during conversations. Stand strong in your
convictions and they will see that you are not an effective target for their
communication style. By firmly but politely refusing to allow them to manipulate
you, they will adjust their approach.

Content and Sequencing

Content: The matter of the speech or presentation or whatever one wants to present
before the audience.

Sequencing: Organizing the content in a meaningful order. There would be some

pattern according to which the entire content should be organized.

Sequencing the content which one wants to present before the audience is very
important for delivering the clear message. There are different ways in which the content
can be organized and presented. Some of the methods are as follows:

Simple Sequences

Suppose you have a number of points you would like to discuss. You can’t discuss them all
at the same time, so you have to decide which goes first, which goes second and which goes
last.

If you organize them into a single list (i.e. no sub-lists, no hierarchy), then you have created
a simple sequence. There are several simple sequences available to you, including:
 Chronological sequence
 Step-by-step sequence
 Spatial sequence
 Paired sequence
 Topical sequence
 Perspective-based sequence
 Sort-by-property sequence

Each of these simple sequences is discussed below.

1. Chronological Sequence
In a chronological sequence, items are ordered according to the date or time they
occurred.
27
 Advantages: A chronological sequence is easy to apply. Because most stories (parables,
novels, movies) follow this pattern. It is a familiar pattern for audiences, and is thus
quite easy to follow.
Disadvantages: Chronological sequence encourages “and-then” syndrome (“… and
then… and then… and then… and then…”). It can feel like a long, tiring sequence, and
may make it more difficult to highlight key takeaways.

Examples of presentations where a chronological sequence may apply: “Key events in

history.”

2. Step-by-step Sequence
In a step-by-step sequence, items are organized according to their order within a
process.
Advantages: Easy to apply, and easy to follow. Particularly effective for any type of
“how to” presentations.
Disadvantages: None: provided that the nature of the presentation is a good match for
this sequence type.

Examples of presentations where a step-by-step sequence may apply: “How to make a

ppt”.

3. Spatial Sequence
The most common type of spatial sequences in presentations is those which organize
items by geography.

Examples of presentations which might use a geographic sequence are: “British

settlement throughout India”

But spatial sequences do not always correspond to geography. Spatial sequences can
also sequence the connected parts of a whole.

Example presentations include: “Functions of different parts of a plant (roots, stem,

branches, leaves, fruit)”

Advantages: Emphasizes the spatial relationships between your items. This can lead to
a stronger understanding of the whole. Audiences can easily visualize how items “fit”
together, particularly if you provide a map, diagram, or scale model.
Disadvantages: A spatial sequence is sometimes used even though the spatial
dimension is meaningless to the content. Avoid this trap.

28
4. Paired Sequences
Paired sequences are short — only two items — but are quite common due to our
propensity to compare and contrast.

There are a number of paired (or binary) sequences:

 Advantages vs. Disadvantages (Costs vs. Benefits; Pros vs. Cons)

o e.g. Proposal to replace a paper-based process with an electronic one
 Problem vs. Solution
o e.g. Strategy to replace fuel with biofuel.
 Cause vs. Effect
o e.g. Impact of chemical processing of water on local water supply.
Advantages: Natural pairings are easy to understand, and audiences expect that one
will follow the other. Using a paired sequence generates anticipation and suspense.
Disadvantages: The binary nature of the paired sequence may not be flexible enough
to handle complex real-world topics. The sequence suggests simplicity which may not
be real. (It suggests a black-and-white situation, even though there may be fifty shades
of grey.) For example, how do you handle a factor that is neither a cost nor a benefit?
How do you handle a factor that is both a cost and a benefit?

5. Topical Sequences
When all else fails, you can usually apply a topical sequence. It deals with any topic in
depth.
Examples of presentations where a topical sequence may apply:
 Presenting a project plan (budget, schedule, staffing, testing)
 Unveiling new corporate strategy and discussing the impact on different
stakeholders (marketing, sales, manufacturing, suppliers, customers)
 School dress code presentation (code details, common violations, enforcement,
uniform costs)
Advantages: Can be applied in almost any presentation, even when chronological,
spatial, or other sequences are not relevant. Because of this, it is the most common
sequence pattern.
Disadvantages: Unlike previous patterns covered, topical patterns are not intuitive. By
their nature, topical sequences are more abstract. Audiences can easily get lost, and
may have difficulty seeing how the sequence items relate. It’s also easy for a presenter
to “miss” an important topic. For these reasons, a topical sequence is generally weaker
than other options.

29
6. Perspective-based Sequences
A perspective-based sequence is a little like a topical sequence turned inside out.
Instead of looking at different aspects of the main issue, a perspective-based
sequence involves investigating some entity through a series of different lenses.

For example, consider a proposal to adopt a corporate initiative on HR policy. One way
to sequence your presentation would be to consider the impact of the policy from
several perspectives:

 From the perspective of HR policy as per employees.

 From the perspective of office-based employees.
 From the perspective of managers.

Advantages: Good for persuasive presentations when you encounter resistance, if you
can correctly address the perspectives of each of your key stakeholders. (Audience
analysis is key!)
Disadvantages: Can be repetitive (boring) if there is a great deal of topical overlap as
you consider each of the perspectives.

7. Sort-by-property Sequences
Sort-by-property sequences are special topical sequences which allow a presenter to
choose one property (or dimension) of their material and organize along that property
(or dimension). You can choose any quality, as long as you can evaluate each item in
your list e.g. importance, brightness, size, speed, popularity, shape, concreteness.

Once you choose the property, you then sequence your items in an appropriate order,
often ascending or descending. For example:

 Smallest to largest.
 Most understood to least understood.
 Most concrete to most abstract (specific to general).
 Least impactful to most impactful.
Advantages: Easy for an audience to follow and predict. Once you set the pattern with
the first two elements, audience members will recognize it and use it to assess
subsequent items.
Disadvantages: Avoid choosing a meaningless dimension on which to organize: for e.g.
If discussing hockey players, it would be meaningless to sequence by favorite music
style.

30