Prepared by Eng. Ala’a Nabil Analog Electronic - B2IT/E – Ch.

Analog Electronics
Chapter 1

Chapter 1 Outline
1.1 Introduction
1.2 V-I Diode characteristic
1.3 Diode equivalent model
1.3.1 Ideal diode Model
1.3.2 Simplified Model
1.3.3 Piece-Wise Linear Model
1.4 Testing diode
1.4.1 Diode mode
1.4.2 Resistance mode
1.5 Diode applications

Prepared by Ala’a Nabil

2021 - 2022

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Prepared by Eng. Ala’a Nabil Analog Electronic - B2IT/E – Ch.1

1.1 Introduction
We know that a diode allows the current flow only in one direction and hence it acts as a one-way
switch. Diode is made of P and N type materials and has two terminals namely anode and cathode.
This device can be operated by controlling the voltage applied to these terminals.
When the voltage applied to the anode is positive with respect to the cathode, the diode is said to be in
Forward Bias. If the voltage applied to the diode is greater than the threshold level (generally, it is of
0.7 V for Silicon and 0.3 V for Germanium Diodes), then diode acts as a short circuit and allows the
current flow. If the polarity of the voltage is changed i.e., the cathode is made positive with respect to
anode, then it is said to be in Reverse Bias and acts as open circuit. As a result, no current flows
through it.
The diode is pn junction device with two terminals, allows the flow of current in one direction only

• The direction of flow of current is the same direction of the holes (direction of the arrow)

1.2 V-I characteristics

The V- I characteristics or voltage-current characteristics of the p-n junction diode is shown in the
below figure. The horizontal represents the amount of voltage applied across the diode whereas the
vertical line represents the current flows through a diode.

• If the voltage applied on the silicon diode is less than 0.7 volts, the silicon diode allows only a
small electric current. However, this small current is considered as negligible.
• When the voltage applied on the silicon diode reaches 0.7 volts, diode starts allowing current
through it. At this point, a small increase in voltage increases the electric current rapidly.
• If the reverse voltage applied on the diode is increased continuously, the p-n junction diode
reaches to a state where junction breakdown occurs and reverse current increases rapidly.

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Prepared by Eng. Ala’a Nabil Analog Electronic - B2IT/E – Ch.1

1.3 Diode equivalent model

Shockley’s equation gives the exponential relationship between current and voltage, but every time
while using diodes in a circuit, we do not need to apply the Shockley’s equation to find the values of
voltage or current. We can approximate the characteristic of diode by replacing the diode in the circuit
with its equivalent circuit.
An equivalent circuit simply means the diode in the circuit can be replaced by other elements without
affecting the behavior of circuit. The diode can be modeled in two different ways depending on the
accuracy required. Two models with increasing accuracy are listed below:
ID = Is ( / – 1 ) Shockley’s equation

Where

• ID is the diode current and Is is the saturation current

• VD is the applied voltage
• VT is the thermal voltage VT = ⟹ At T = 300 K: VT = ≈ 26 mV

1.3.1 Ideal diode

Figure indicates that the voltage drop across the diode is zero for any value of diode current. The ideal
diode does not allow any current to flow in reverse biased condition. The current flowing through the
diode is zero for any value of reverse biased voltage. Taking this into consideration, the ideal diode can
be modeled as open or closed switch depending on the bias voltage.
• At forward: The forward resistance is zero and voltage across the diode is zero, at this case
the diode is represented by short circuit ⟹ Closed switch.
• At reverse: The resistance is infinity and current through a diode is zero, at this case the diode
is represented by open circuit ⟹ Open switch.

1.3.2 Simplified Model

The equivalent model in this case consists of a battery and an ideal diode. Consider the horizontal line
from (0 to 0.7 V) in the curve. The horizontal line indicates that the current flowing through diode is
zero for voltages between 0 and 0.7 V. To model this behavior, we put a battery of 0.7 V in the
equivalent diode model. This does not mean that diodes are a source of voltage. When you measure the
voltage across an isolated diode, the instrument will show zero value. The battery simply indicates that it
opposes the flow of current in forward direction until 0.7 V. As the voltage becomes larger than 0.7 V,
the current starts flowing in forward direction.

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Prepared by Eng. Ala’a Nabil Analog Electronic - B2IT/E – Ch.1

1.3.3 Piece-Wise Linear Model

It provides a good first approximation to the actual characteristics of the diode. Piece-wise linear
characteristics can be obtained by replacing the diode in the circuit with a resistor, a battery and an ideal
diode. We can see from the graph that the diode current changes from 0 to 15 mA for a voltage change
from 0.7 to 0.8 V. Thus the average value of resistance is (0.8 V- 0.7 V)/(15 mA - 0 mA) = 6.67 Ω. Thus
the value of resistance in the equivalent model is approximately 6.67 Ω. The figure given below shows
piece-wise linear characteristics of diode along with the its model.

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Prepared by Eng. Ala’a Nabil Analog Electronic - B2IT/E – Ch.1

1.4 Testing diode

A multimeter is one of these essential tools that is generally used for measuring amperes, volts, and
ohms.

The diode testing using a digital multimeter (DMM) can be carried in two ways because there are
two modes available in DMM to check the diode. These modes are:

1.4.1 Diode Mode Testing

• Identify the anode and cathode terminals of the diode.

• Keep the Digital Multimeter (DMM) in diode checking mode by rotating the central knob to the
position where the diode symbol is indicated. In this mode, the multimeter is capable to supply a
current of approximately 2mA between the test leads.
• Connect the red probe of the multimeter to the anode and black probe to the cathode. This means
the diode is forward-biased.
• Observe the reading on multimeter’s display. If the displayed voltage value is in between 0.6 to
0.7 (for a Silicon Diode), then the diode is healthy and perfect. For Germanium Diodes, this
value is in between 0.25 to 0.3.
• Now, reverse the terminals of the meter i.e., connect the red probe to cathode and black to anode.
This is the reverse biased condition of the diode where no current flows through it. Hence, the
meter should read OL or 1 (which is equivalent to open circuit) if the diode is healthy.

If the meter shows irrelevant values to the above two conditions, then the diode is defective. The
defect in the diode can be either open or short.

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Prepared by Eng. Ala’a Nabil Analog Electronic - B2IT/E – Ch.1

1.4.2 Ohmmeter (Resistance) Mode Testing

• Identify the terminals of the diode i.e., anode and cathode.

• Keep the Digital Multimeter (DMM) in resistance or ohmmeter mode by rotating the central knob
or selector to the place where ohm symbol or resistor values are indicated. Keep the selector in
low resistance (may be 1kΩ) mode for forward-bias and keep it in high resistance mode (100kΩ)
for the reverse bias testing procedure.
• Connect the red probe to the anode and black probe to the cathode. This means diode is forward-
biased. When the diode is forward-biased, the resistance of the diode is so small.
If the meter displays a moderately low value on the meter display i.e., a few tens of ohms, then the
diode is not good. But if the resistance reading is few hundred ohms to few kilo ohms, then the diode is
good and working properly.

1.5 Diode applications

1- Switch
2- Rectifier

The semiconductor diode is different from a mechanical switch in the sense that when the switch is
closed it will only permit current to flow in one direction.

The application areas of diodes include communication systems as limiters, clippers, gates; computer
systems as logic gates, clampers; power supply systems as rectifiers and inverters; television systems
as phase detectors, limiters, clampers; radar circuits as gain control circuits, parameter amplifiers, etc.
The following description describes the various applications of diodes briefly.

Example 1

Determine the output voltage Vo and current ID in the series circuit shown.
Solution

• 12 – 0.7 – 0.3 – Vo = 0 KVL

Vo = 12 – 0.7 – 0.3 ⟹ Vo = 11 V

• ID = = = 1.96 mA
.

Example 2

Determine the load voltage VR and current IR in the series circuit shown.
Solution

• 8 – 0.7 – VR = 0 KVL

VR = 8 – 0.7 ⟹ VR = 7.3 V
.
• IR = = = 3.32 mA
.

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Prepared by Eng. Ala’a Nabil Analog Electronic - B2IT/E – Ch.1

Example 3

Determine the output voltage Vo and current IR in the series circuit shown.

Solution

• 12 – 0.3 – Vo = 0 KVL

Vo = 12 – 0.3 ⟹ Vo = 11.7 V
.
• IR = = = 5.32 mA
.

Example 4

Determine Vo1, Vo2, and I for the network shown.

Solution

Vo1 = 0.7 V

Vo2 = 0.3 V

I1 through R1 = 1 kΩ:

• 20 – I1 R1 – Vo1 = 0 KVL
.
I1 = = = 19.3 mA

I2 through R2 = 0.47 kΩ:

• Vo1 – I2 R2 – Vo2 = 0 KVL

. .
I2 = = = 0.85 mA
.

• I = I1 – I2 = 19.3 – 0.85 = 18.45 mA

Example 5

Determine Vo for the network shown with 0 V on both inputs.

Solution

• 0 – ( – 0.7 ) – Vo = 0 KVL

0 + 0.7 – Vo = 0 ⟹ Vo = 11.7 V

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Prepared by Eng. Ala’a Nabil Analog Electronic - B2IT/E – Ch.1

Exercises
1. Determine the output voltage Vo, ID , VD1 and VD2 in the series circuit shown.

2. Determine the output voltage Vo and current IR in the series circuit shown.

3. Determine Vo for the network shown with 0 V on both inputs