LEARNING MODULE IN PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUES

INTRODUCTION TO DACTYLOSCOPY AND

FINGERPRINT
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the unit, you should be able to:
a. trace the historical background of personal identification;
b. identify the basic concepts of fingerprint; and
c. show understanding on the importance of fingerprint in law
enforcement

INTRODUCTION
The study of fingerprints is recommended for every police officer and law enforcement
students. Frequently the principal evidence found at a crime scene is a latent fingerprint
which becomes the key to the perpetrator’s identification and conviction. Of all the methods,
only fingerprint identification has proved to be infallible (Detran, n.d.).
One of the prime functions of a police agency is the identification of people. The most
accurate way of identification by a police agency is the through the use of fingerprints, which
law enforcements’ most powerful weapon.
This module aims to trace the historical background of fingerprints, its development,
application and use to law enforcement. It will also provide the reasons why fingerprint is
considered as an infallible science of identification. Topics in this module shall include:
A. Nature of fingerprints.
B. The historical background of fingerprints
C. Principles involved in the study of fingerprints
D. Layers of the Skin and Layer of the Epidermis
E. Uses of fingerprints
F. Applications of fingerprints to law enforcement

Definition of terms
You should memorize the following terms:

Fingerprint as an impression is the reproduction on some smooth surface of the pattern or

design formed by the ridges on the inside of the end joint of the fingers and thumb, through
the medium of ink or any coloring substance capable of producing visibility.

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Fingerprint as a science is the identification of person by means of the ridges appearing on

the fingers, on the palms and on the soles of the feet.

Dactyloscopy is the identification of a person through the examination and comparison of

fingerprints. It is also the classification of fingerprints.

Dactylography is the study of fingerprint for purposes of identification.

NATURE OF FINGERPRINTS

How ridges are formed?

• Ridge – top of long hill
• are tiny elevation or hill like structures found on the epidermis layer of the skin
containing sweat pores. It appears as black lines with tiny white dots called
pores in an inked impression.
• Furrows– the little pockets underneath the skin where oils or sweats by small holes to
the surface the skin.
• are the canal-like impression or a depression found between the ridges which
may be compare with the low area in a tire thread. They appear as white lines
in an inked impression.

Ridges

Furrows

Skin Structure of the Ridge System

• 95 % - body skin is smooth and relatively featureless, apart from hairs, pores and
creases.
• 5% - covering the palms of the hands and soles of the feet is marked differently.

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Location of the Fingerprint

A fingerprint is a composite of the ridge outlines which appears on the skin surface of
the bulbs on the inside of the end joints of the fingers and thumbs. These ridges are
commonly referred to as papillary or friction ridges. The ridges have a definite contour and
appear in several ridge formations or patterns, each possessing definite individual details by
which positive identification can be made. Ridge characteristics are formed prior to birth and
remain constant throughout life except for growth and deep scarification.

From a law enforcement viewpoint, fingerprints serve as an additional purpose. Since

the ridges on the skin surface emit a film of perspiration or oily matter, there is a tendency for
the ridge impression to adhere to nonporous objects that any person may touch. Such
fingerprints may be rendered visible by various powders and chemicals used for this
purpose. When latent impressions discovered at a crime scene during an investigation are
searched against the fingerprints of a suspect and a positive identification is made, these
latent fingerprints are admissible as evidence in a court of law.

Permanency of the ridge characteristics, plus their unique distribution by type,

location, and direction are the same except when taken from the same finger of the same
person. Generally, the courts set twelve (12) characteristics as the minimum number of
matching characteristics required to establish identity. The actual; determination as to
whether identity exists is dependent upon the matching of individual minute ridge

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characteristics. If a fingerprint is clear, it is unusual to be able to find thirty (30) or more

characteristics which can be used for identification purposes.

HISTORY OF FINGERPRINT

A. HOLLAND AND ANCIENT CHINA

Identification of individuals were by means of branding, tattooing, mutilation, and also
manifested by wearing clothes of different design.
In earlier civilizations, branding and even maiming were used to mark the criminal for
what he was. The thief was deprived of the hand which committed the thievery. The Romans
employed the tattoo needle to identify and prevent desertion of mercenary soldiers.

B. OLD MEXICO
The Aztecs impressed their hands accidentally or intentionally on the molded and still
soft clays, of their hand-made idols to serve as their trade marks
The Tolteds authorities stamped their hands on the death warrants for the men and
women who offered their lives to sacrifice for their idol gods.

C. FRANCE
Numerous rock carvings and paintings featuring hand designs and fingerprints have
been found on the granite wall slabs in the Neolithic burial passage of the L’lle de Gayr’inis.
(Other specimens were also found in the Spanish Pyrenees Cliff dwelling in Nova Scotia, in
the Bulearic island, Australis, New England Coasts and in Africa).

D. BABYLONIA
The first use of fingerprints for personal identification originated when Babylonian
Magistrates ordered their officers making arrest and property confiscations to secure the
defendants’ fingerprints. These facts in clay tablets and cuneiform writings are now
preserved and kept in British Museums.

E. JUDEA
The Holy Scripture or Bible contains many interesting facts based on fingerprints.
Paul, the Apostle. Used his own fingerprints to sing his letters (II Thessalonians 3:17 – “I,
Paul, greet you with my own hand. This is the mark in every letter. Thus, I write.”) Other
significant quotations are found in Job 37:7 – “He sealth up the hand of all men that every
man will know his works.” And revelations 13:16 – “It will cause all, the small and the great,
the rich and the poor, and the free and the bond, to have a mark on their right hand or in
their forehead.”

F. JERUSALEM
Fingerprint relics were found in clay lumps during the 4 th and 5th centuries of the
Christian Era. William Frederick Bade, director of the Palestine Institute of Archeology,
conducted excavations at various sites in Palestine and at one place found finger imprints on
many pieces of broken pottery. These “identifications” permitted the confused debris to date
accurately to the fourth century A.D. Commenting on this case, Fingerprint magazine (1973)
stated that “these impressions were obviously intentional and no doubt, represented the
workman’s individual trade mark.”

G. CHINA
Fingerprints is called “Hua Chi”. The value of fingerprints for purpose of identification
was found on a Chinese Clay seal made not later than the 3rd Century.

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During the Tang Dynasty, fingerprints were used in connection with the preparation
of legal documents. Kia Kung-yen, an author during this time stated that “Wooden tablets
were engraved with the full terms of the contract, and notches were out in the sides to where
they were identical so that the tablets could later be matched or tallied, thus providing them
genuine.” This was the Bill of Loan quite similar to the present Bank Draft.
The Code of domestic relations as described in the Chinese Law Book of Yung Hwui
states: To divorce a wife the husband must write a bill of divorcement and state the reasons
or grounds that are due for actions, and the impress their palm prints thereon.” For contracts,
fingerprints were also used by illiterates.
Early in the 12th Century, in the novel, “The Story of the River Bank” fingerprinting
found itself already in their criminal procedure. Palm and sole impression were stamped on
deeds of sale to prevent impersonation.

H. JAPAN
Deeds, notes and certification to be used as proofs were sealed by the mark of the
hand called “TEGATA”.
In the treatment of criminal, the imprint of the thumb (bo-in or bo-an) was taken. The
criminal signed only by thumbprint with regard to his sentence, and it was considered as an
inferior sort of signature. He was deprived of his civil rights. The thumbprint which took the
place of signature was not intended to establish the criminal’s identity.

I. CONSTANTINOPLE
In treaty ratification. The Sultan soaked his hands in a sheep’s blood and impressed
it in a document as his seal.

J. ENGLAND
1. THOMAS BEWICK, and English engraver, author, and naturalist engraved the
pattern of his own fingerprints on every wood-work he had finished to serve as his mark so
as to establish its genuineness.

K. UNITED STATES
1. JCA MAYER – in 1788, stated in his book, “although the arrangement of skin
ridges is never duplicated in to two persons, nevertheless the similarities are closer among
some individuals”. He does became the first to state that the prints of two persons are never
alike.

2. GILBERT THOMPSON, a geologist in New Mexico who adopted the first individual
use of fingerprints on August 8, 1882 by using his own thumbprints as a protection to
prevent tampering with the pay orders he issued.

3. ISAIAH WEST TABER – Photographer in San Francisco who has already

engaged in the study and promotion of the fingerprint system even before Galton’s
participation. He advocated the use of the system for the registration of the immigrant
Chinese.

4. SAMUEL CLEMENS – An Englishman whose ‘num de plume’ or pen name is

Mark Twain, informally introduced Dactyloscopy (Science of Fingerprint Identification) in the
United States through his books “Life in the Mississippi” and “ Pudd’n Head Wilson,” a novel
based on the dramatic fingerprint identification demonstrated during court trial. His story
pointed out the infallibility of fingerprint identification in 1883.

5. DR. HENRY P. DE FOREST – Utilize the first municipal use of fingerprints for non-
criminal registration on December 19, 1902 in the Municipal Civil Service Commission of the
City of New York. He required Civil Service applicants to be fingerprinted to prevent them
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from having better and qualified persons to take the test for them and put the system into
practice.

6. CAPT. JAMES I. PARKE – Advocated the first state and penal use of fingerprint
which was officially adopted in Singing-sing, Prison on June 5, 1903 and later on at Auburn,
Napanoch and Clinton Penitentiaries.

7. SGT. KENNETH PERRIER - An Englishman and first fingerprint instructor at the

St. Louise Police Department, Missouri. He was one of the pupils of sir Edward Richard
Henry and through personal contact during the “Words Fair Exposition held in St. Louise; a
fingerprint bureau was established on April 12, 1904.

8. MAJ. R. McCLOUGHRY – The warden of the Federal Penitentiary of Leavenworth

when the office of the Attorney General of U.S. granted permission to establish a fingerprint
bureau therein on November 2, 1904. It was the first official National Government use of
fingerprints.

9. MARY K. HOLAND – The first American Instructor in Dactyloscopy.

10. F.B.I. – An Identification unit therein was officially established by an Act of

Congress in 1924.

11. INSTITUTE OF APPLIED SCIENCE – The first private school to install

laboratories for instruction purposes in Dactyloscopy.

12. HARRY MAYERS II – In 1925 installed the first official foot and fingerprint system
for infants in Jewish Maternity Hospital, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., the first system
in the states.

PIONEERS IN THE STUDY OF FINGERPRINT AND THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS

DR. NEHEMIAH GREW – In the year 1684 offered one of the earliest known European
publications of fingerprint, “Theme on Skin Structiure”, he described the ridges of hands and
feet.

Prof. MARCELO MALPIGHI – An Italian Anatomist, known as the “Grandfather of

Dactyloscopy.” He perceived the ridges to be drawn into LOOPS and SPIRAL. One layer of
the skin was named after him, the “Malpighi layer.”

GOVARD BIDLOO – In 1685 he wrote a book, “Human Anatomy,” in which he included a

drawing of the thumb print showing the ridge configuration of the whorl pattern.

Prof. JEAN JOHANNES EVANGELIST PURKENJI – A Czechoslovakian professor in

physiology, theology and anatomy at the University of Breslau, Germany and was known as
the “Father of Dactyloscopy”. In 1823, he describes the various patterns of the fingers and
systematically classified and divided them into nine groups.

HERMAN WELCKER – In 1856 took the prints of his own palms. In 1897 (41 years later), he
printed the same palm to prove that the prints do not change. (Principle of Permanency)

Sir WILLIAM HERSCHEL – In 1858 in Hoogly District of Bengal, India, he began the first
known official use of fingerprints in large scale. He printed the palm of the natives whom he
had business dealings in order to avoid impersonation among laborers. The first person that

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Herschel fingerprinted was Rajyadhar Konai. The first inking of the fingers was attributed to
him and may be considered as the “Father of Chiroscopy.”

Dr. HENRY FAULDS – The Scottish surgeon stationed at Tsukiji hospital in Tokyo, Japan,
who in 1880 wrote the English Journal “Nature” dealing with latent prints found at the crime
scene. He claimed that the impression would provide positive identification of offenders
when apprehended. He also wrote “A Manual of Practical Dactyloscopy” based on skin
ridges of the fingers and toes. To him was attributed the use of printer’s ink and the printing
of all fingers and thumb.

Sir FRANCIS GALTON – The scientist who divide the types of fingerprints into “Arches,
Loops and Whorls” known as “ALW Method.” His greatest contribution to Dactyloscopy is the
fact which he had proven that “the ridges remain constant and unchanging throughout life
until decomposition” and that “the friction ridges contain individual characteristics” which he
termed as “Galton’s Details. He wrote the book, “Fingerprints” and published it in 1892. His
system was officially adopted in 1894.

ALPHONSE BERTILLON – A French whose method of identification was based upon

eleven measurements of the human anatomy and used the metric system for recording the
date. He devised the first truly scientific method of criminal identification in Paris France
called anthropometry or Bertillonage. He conceived the idea of using anatomical
measurements to distinguish one criminal from another. The Bertillon system was generally
accepted for thirty years. But it never recovered from the vents of 1903, when a man named
Will West was sentenced to the US Penitentiary at Leavenworth Kansas. There was already
a prisoner at the penitentiary at the time, whose Bertillon measurements were nearly exact,
and his name was William West.
Upon investigation, there were indeed two men. They looked exactly alike, but were
allegedly not related. Their Bertillon measurements were close enough to identify them as
the same person. However, a fingerprint comparison quickly and correctly identified them as
two different people. The West men were apparently identical twin brothers per indications in
later discovered prison records citing correspondence from the same immediate family
relatives.

JUAN VUCETICH – In 1891, an Argentinean criminologist whose system of classifying and

filing of fingerprint sets is still used by most of Spanish and Latin countries. His collection of
fingerprint records at his time was considered as the largest of its kind in the world. His
system was modified by Federico Oloriz Aguillera

Sir EDWARD RICHARD HENRY – Published the book “Classification and Uses of
Fingerprints.” His system was adopted on July 1, 1901 in London and with some
modifications is still in general use in most English-speaking countries of today. He modified
the Galton’s System. His system was also acclaimed and officially adopted in Wales as well
as throughout England and emerge as “Father of Fingerprint.” The basic Henry with
modifications and extension is used by the Federal Bureau of Investigation and law
enforcement agencies throughout the United States.

1905 – Fingerprinting was officially adopted by US Army. It was known as the first military
use of fingerprinting.

1907 – Fingerprinting was officially adopted by the US Navy. First Navy use on January 11,
1907.

1908 – Fingerprinting was officially adopted by the US Marine Corps.

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1911 – State of Illinois, USA made the first conviction based solely upon fingerprint
evidence. People v. Jennings was known as the first judicial ruling on fingerprint in US.

1919 – Marked the publication of “Fingerprint and Identification Magazine in Chicago. The
first monthly journal devoted exclusively for fingerprint science.

Thomas Jennings
Thomas Jennings was the first person to be convicted of murder in the US based on
fingerprint evidence. In 1911, Jennings appealed his conviction to the Illinois Supreme Court,
questioning the admissibility of fingerprint evidence. The Illinois Supreme Court upheld his
conviction concluding that fingerprint evidence is admissible and a reliable form of
identification. Thomas Jennings was sentenced to death and executed on Feb. 16, 1912 for
the murder of Clarence B. Hiller.

Robert J. Pitts (Known as Roscoe Pitts)

A career criminal noted for altering his fingerprints in 1941. He had a doctor remove
the skin from his first joints and replace it with skin from his chest.

The SPA Murders (State of Florida vs. Stephen William Beattie, 1978)
The SPA murders occurred on July 23,1978 in North Miami Beach, Florida. This case
was the first case on record where a latent fingerprint developed from a homicide victim’s
skin was identified with an offender and introduced as evidence in court.
On January 31, 1979, Stephen William Beattie was found guilty of three counts of first
degree murder. On February 1, 1979, he was sentenced to three consecutive death
sentences. Beattie committed suicide within three years of his sentence in prison while
awaiting execution. He maintained his innocence even to the end.

State of New York vs. Crispi (1911)

Charles Crispi, aka Cesare J. Cella, was the defendant. This was noted as the first
case that fingerprint evidence was the sole evidence. Fingerprint expert, Joseph Faurot
testified to the identification process. After hearing Faurot’s testimony, Crispi pled guilty.

State of Ohio vs. Betts ( 1917)

The Betts case may have been the first conviction based solely on palm prints. In
1917, Betts was arrested and charged with burglary based on the fact that his palm print was
found on a windowpane.

State of Virginia vs. Robert Douglas (1991)

The first case to establish, precedence for the acceptance of digitally enhanced
evidence in American criminal proceedings. This 1991 murder case involved the
enhancement of bloody fingerprint found on a pillowcase at the crime scene. A company
called Hunter Graphics was contacted by the Henrico County Police Department to assist in
the enhancement process. The fingerprint was subsequently identified as belonging to
Robert Knight. After being charged with the crime, Knight’s attorney moved for a Kely-Frye
Hearing to determine the scientific validity and acceptance of the enhancement process.
The determination of the court was that the techniques used were essentially photographic
processes. Knight pleaded guilty and was sentenced to four times life terms.

United States vs. Plaza (2002)

Plaza was one of the four people charged as being a hit man. There were latent
prints in the case and the defense decided to challenge the fingerprint evidence. A Daubert
hearing was held. Federal Judge Louis Pollak ruled that fingerprint experts could not tell
juries that two fingerprints matched. It was noted that fingerprints were unique and

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permanent but the science did not meet the Daubert test. Judge Pollak reversed his decision
two months later.

FINGERPRINT IN THE PHILIPPINES

Mr. JONES – The one who first taught fingerprint in the Philippine Constabulary sometime in
the year 1900.

BUREAU OF PRISONS – Records shows that on 1918 “Carpetas” (Commitment of

Conviction) already bear fingerprints.

PEOPLE VS. MEDINA – The first leading judicial decision in the Philippine jurisprudence on
the science of fingerprinting.

Lt. ASA N. DARBY – Under his management during the re-occupation of the Philippines by
the American Forces, a modern and complete Fingerprint file has been established for
Philippine Commonwealth.

Mr. GENEROSO REYES – The first Filipino fingerprint technician employed by the
Philippine Constabulary.

PLARIDEL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION (PPI) – College of Criminology, Manila, the first

governmental recognized school to teach the science of fingerprints and other police
sciences.

PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN THE STUDY OF FINGERPRINT

THREE DOGMATIC PRINCIPLES OF FINGERPRINT

1. PRINCIPLE OF INDIVIDUALITY – There are no two fingerprints that are exactly

alike.
2. PRINCIPLE OF PERMANENCY – The configuration and details of individual ridges
remain constant and unchanging.

TWO LAYERS OF THE SKIN

1. Outer Scarf or Epidermis - is stratified (layered), squamous (flat) epithelial tissue 5

layers thick and...

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A. Stratum corneum - consists of 25-30 layers of stratified (layered) squamous

(flattened) dead keratinocytes (skin cells) that are constantly shed.
B. Stratum lucidum - is present only in thick skin (lips, soles of feet, and palms of
hands). Little or no cell detail is visible.
C. Stratum granulosum - 3-4 layers of cell thick consisting of flattened
keratinocytes. At this level, the cells are dying.
D. Stratum spinosum - several layers thick, consisting mostly of keratinocytes.
Together with the stratum basale it is sometimes referred to as the Malpighian layer (living
layer).
E. Stratum basale - a single layer of cells in contact with the basement membrane.
These cells are mitotically active - they are alive and reproducing - the reason why it is often
referred to as the generating layer. Four types of cells are present in this layer
Keratinocytes (90%) - responsible for waterproofing and toughening the skin
Melanocytes (8%) - synthesize the pigment melanin which absorbs and disperses ultraviolet
radiation
Tactile cells - very sparse and function in touch reception
Nonpigmented granular dendrocytes - cells that ingest bacteria and foreign debris.

2. Inner Scarf or Dermis - is much thicker than the epidermis and consists of two layers -
the Papillary layer (DPL) an area of loose connective tissue extending up into the epidermis
as dermal pegs (DP) and the deeper reticular layer (DRL). The primary function of the
dermis is to sustain and support the epidermis. The papillary layer (DPL) is made up of
connective tissue with fine elastic fibres. The surface area of this layer is increased by the
dermal papillae (DP). These fingerlike formations greatly increase the surface area for the
exchange of oxygen, nutrients and waste products between the dermis and the epidermis.

Note: Damage on the epidermis alone does not result to permanent ridge destruction, while
damage on dermis will result to permanent ridge destruction.

CAN FINGERPRINT BE EFFACED? (ERASED)

John Delinger, a notorious gangster and a police character attempted to erase his
fingerprints by burning his fingerprint by acid, but as time went by, the ridges were again
restored to its natural feature. The acid he applied temporarily destroyed the epidermis of the
bulb of the finger. As long as the bulb of the dermis of the finger are not completely
destroyed, the fingerprints will always remain unchangeable and indestructible.

CAN FINGERPRINT BE FORGED?

Various experiments were conducted by authorities and although they could always
make an accurate reproduction, still there is no case on record known or have been written
that forgery of fingerprints have been a complete success. The introduction of modern and
scientific equipments, new techniques and up-to-date knowledge in crime detection, will
always fail the attempt.

3. PRINCIPLE OF INFALLIBILITY – The fingerprint evidence is reliable.

REASON WHY FINGERPRINTS IS ONE OF THE MOST INFALLIBLE MEANS OF

IDENTIFICATION

1. Fingerprints are already formed about 3 to 4 months of the intra uterine life and it will
remain throughout life until final decomposition of the body.
2. The pattern formation are formed by papillary ridges contain peculiar characteristics
upon which a person can easily identified by fingerprint examiners.
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3. Almost every police and law enforcement agencies throughout the world accept,
adopt and utilized the fingerprint system as a means of absolute identification of a
person.
4. The court and other authorities take cognizance of its Importance and reliability of
fingerprints as a means of identification.

USES OF FINGERPRINTS

Fingerprint identification has long been regarded by its greatest contribution to law
enforcement. This science provides distinct service in administration of justice and many
other areas where positive identification is paramount importance.

1. Identification of criminal whose fingerprint was found at the crime scene.

2. Identification of fugitives through a comparison of fingerprints.
3. Means of personal identification.
4. Identification of unknown deceased.
5. Prevention of hospital mistakes in the identification of infants.
6. Identification of person suffering from amnesia.
7. Identification of missing person.
8. Personal Identification of victims of disaster works.
9. Identification of unconscious person.
10. Licensing procedure for automobile, firearms and other equipment.

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