Chapter 10.

InÖnite Sequences and Series

Chapter 10. InÖnite Sequences and Series

10.1. InÖnite Sequences

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InÖnite Sequences and Series

Consider the following sum:

1 1 1 1 1
+ + + ++ n +
2 4 8 16 2
The dots at the end indicate that the sum goes on forever. So one may
ask the following questions:

Does this make sense?

Can we assign a numerical value to an inÖnite sum?

While at Örst it may seem di¢cult or maybe impossible, but we have done
something very similar when we talked about one quantity getting ìcloser
and closerî to a Öxed point. Here then letsí ask: if we add more and more
terms, may the sum get closer and closer to some Öxed value?

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InÖnite Sequences and Series

1
We may assign a sequence to that inÖnite sum: let an = n for all n 2 N,
2
then
1
s1 = a1 =
2
1 1 3
s2 = a1 + a2 = + =
2 4 4
1 1 1 7
s3 = a1 + a2 + a3 = + + =
2 4 8 8
1 1 1 1 15
s4 = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 = + + + =
2 4 8 16 16
and so on, thus we obtain a sequence with the following general term
1 1 1 1
sn = a1 + a2 + a3 +    + an = + + ++ n
2 4 8 2

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InÖnite Sequences and Series

It is easy to show that limn !∞ sn = 1 :

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InÖnite Sequences and Series

There is one place that you have long accepted this notion of inÖnite sum
without really thinking of it as a sum:
3 3 3 3 1
0.3 = 0.33333 = + + + + =
10 100 1000 10000 3
or
1 4 1 5 9
3.14159 . . . = 3 + + + + + +    = π.
10 100 1000 10000 100000

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InÖnite Sequences and Series

Our aim is to investigate inÖnite sums, called the series, and to do this we
Örst study to investigate limits of sequences of numbers. We call
∞
1 1 1 1 1
∑ 2n
= + + ++ n +
2 4 8 2
n =1

a series, while
1 1 1 1
, , , , n,
2 4 8 2
is a sequence, and  
∞
1 1
∑ 2n
= lim 1  n
n !∞ 2
n =1

that is, the value of a series is the limit of a particular sequence.

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InÖnite Sequences

10.1 InÖnite Sequences

Until now, we deal with functions whose domains are the real numbers,
like f (x ) = sin x. A sequence is a function with domain the positive
integers N = f1, 2, 3,    , n,    g . The range of the function is still
allowed to be the real numbers; in symbols, we say that a sequence is a
function f : N ! R. Sequences are written in a few di§erent ways, all
equivalent; these all mean the same thing:

a1 , a 2 ,    , a n ,   
( an ) n 2 N
(f (n ))n∞=1 .

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InÖnite Sequences

Sequences can be described by writing rules (general terms) that specify

their terms, such as
p 1 n1
an = n, bn = (1)n +1 , cn = , dn = (1)n +1
n n
or by listing terms:
p p p p 
( an ) n 2 N = 1, 2, 3,    , n,   
n 2N
 
1 1 1 1
( bn ) n 2 N = 1,  , ,  ,    , (1)n +1 ,   
2 3 4 n n 2N
 
1 2 3 4 n1
( cn ) n 2 N = 0, , , , ,    , ,
2 3 4 5 n n 2N
(dn )n 2N = (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1,    , (1)n ,    )n 2N .

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InÖnite Sequences
Convergence and Divergence
DeÖnition 10.1.The sequence (an )n 2N converges to the number L if for
every positive number ε there corresponds an integer N such that for all n,
n > N =) jan  Lj < ε.
If no such number L exists, we say that (an )n 2N diverges.

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InÖnite Sequences

If (an )n 2N converges to L, we write

lim an = L, or simply an ! L
n !∞

and call L the limit of the sequence.

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InÖnite Sequences

Example 1. Show that

1
(a) lim =0
n !∞ n

(b ) lim k = k (any constant k ) .

n !∞

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InÖnite Sequences

Example 2. Show that, for the sequence with general term an = (1)n ,
lim an 6= 1. Can it be 1?
n !∞

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InÖnite Sequences

Remark The deÖnition is very similar to the deÖnition of the limit of

a function f (x ) as x tends to ∞. Clearly; if lim f (x ) = L, then
x !∞
lim f (n ) = L.
n !∞

1
For example; consider the function given with the rule f (x ) = ,
x
then lim f (x ) = 0, thus lim f (n ) = 0, i.e. the numbers
x !∞ n !∞

1 1 1 1 1
1, , , , , . . . , , . . .
2 3 4 5 n
get closer and closer to 0.

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InÖnite Sequences

But the converse of this statement is not true. If we consider the sequence
with general term f (n ) = sin (nπ ) , the terms of the sequence are

sin π, sin (2π ) , sin (3π ) , . . . , sin (nπ ) , . . . = 0, 0, 0, . . . , 0, . . .

since sin (nπ ) = 0 when n is an integer, and so lim f (n ) = 0. But

n !∞
lim f (x ) does not exist; because the values sin (x π ) do not get closer and
x !∞
closer to a single value.

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InÖnite Sequences

In general, whenever you want to know lim f (n ) you should Örst

n !∞
attempt to compute lim f (x ) , since if the latter exists it is also
x !∞
equal to the Örst limit.

But if for some reason lim f (x ) does not exist, it may still be true
x !∞
that lim f (n ) exists, but you will have to Ögure out another way to
n !∞
compute it.

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InÖnite Sequences
Example 3. Evaluate the following limits;
ln n
(a) lim =
n !∞ n

 n
n+1
(b ) lim =
n !∞ n1

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InÖnite Sequences

It is occasionally useful to think of the graph of a sequence. Since the

function is deÖned on positive integers, the graph is just a sequence of
1
dots. Consider the graphs of the sequences with general terms a n = ,
n
bn = sin (nπ ) and the graphs of the corresponding real functions:

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InÖnite Sequences

DeÖnition 10.2. The sequence (an )n 2N diverges to inÖnity if for

every M there is an integer N such that for all n larger than N,
an > M. If this condition holds we write

lim an = ∞ or an ! ∞.
n !∞

Similarly, if for every number m there is an integer N such that for all
n > N we have an < m, then we say (an )n 2N
diverges to negative inÖnity and write

lim an = ∞ or an ! ∞.
n !∞

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InÖnite Sequences

A sequence may diverge without diverging to positive or negative

inÖnity as we saw in Example 2.

Also note that the convergence or divergence of the sequence is not

a§ected by the values of any numbers of its initial terms (whether we
omit or change the Örst 10, 1000, or even the Örst million terms does
not matter).

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InÖnite Sequences

Calculating Limits of Sequences

The properties of limits of functions have versions for sequences:
Theorem 1. Let (an )n 2N and (bn )n 2N be sequences of real numbers, and
let L and M be real numbers. The following rules hold if lim an = L and
n !∞
lim bn = M.
n !∞

lim (an  bn ) = lim an  lim bn = L  M

n !∞ n !∞ n !∞
 
lim (kan ) = k lim an = kL
n !∞ n !∞
  
lim (an bn ) = lim an lim bn = KM
n !∞ n !∞ n !∞
an L
lim = if M 6= 0
n ! ∞ bn M

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InÖnite Sequences
Example 4. Evaluate the following limits;
 
2
(a) lim  =
n !∞ n

 
2n  1
(b ) lim =
n !∞ n

2  3n5
(c ) lim =
n !∞ n5 + 1

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InÖnite Sequences

Theorem 2. (The Sandwich Theorem For Sequences) Suppose that

an  bn  cn for all n > N, for some N 2 N. If
lim an = lim cn = L, then lim bn = L.
n !∞ n !∞ n !∞

Example 5. Investigate the convergence behaviour of the sequences

with the following general terms:
sin n
( a ) an =
n

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InÖnite Sequences

 n
1
( b ) bn =
2

1
(c ) cn = (1)n
n

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InÖnite Sequences

Theorem 3. lim jan j = 0 if and only if lim an = 0.

n !∞ n !∞
Proof.

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InÖnite Sequences
Theorem 4. (The Continuous Function Theorem For
Sequences) Let (an )n 2N be a sequence of real numbers. If
an ! L and if f is a function that is continuous at L and deÖned at
all an , then f (an ) ! fr
(a ) .
n+1
Example 6. Show that ! 1 and 21/n ! 1.
n

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InÖnite Sequences

Example 7.(Commonly Occuring Limits) Prove the following equalities:

(a) lim x 1/n = 1 whenever x > 0,
n !∞

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InÖnite Sequences

(b ) lim x n = 0 whenever jx j < 1,

n !∞

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InÖnite Sequences

 x n
(c ) lim 1+ = e x for any x,
n !∞ n

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InÖnite Sequences

xn
(d ) lim = 0 for any x.
n !∞ n!

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InÖnite Sequences

 
sin n
Example 8. Determine whether p converges or diverges.
n n 2N

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InÖnite Sequences

Example 9. Determine whether (r n )n 2N converges or diverges with

respect to the values of r .

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InÖnite Sequences

Bounded Monotonic Sequences

DeÖnition 10.3. A sequence (an )n 2N is said to be bounded from
above if there exists a number M such that an  M for all n. The
number M is an upper bound for (an )n 2N . If M is an upper bound
for (an )n 2N but no number less than M is an upper bound for
(an )n 2N , then M is the least upper bound for (an )n 2N .

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InÖnite Sequences

A sequence (an )n 2N is said to be bounded from below if there

exists a number m such that an  m for all n. The number m is a
lower bound for (an )n 2N . If m is a lower bound for (an )n 2N but no
number greater than m is a lower bound for (an )n 2N , then m is the
greatest lower bound for (an )n 2N .

If (an )n 2N is bounded from above and below, then (an )n 2N is

bounded. If (an )n 2N is not bounded we say that it is unbounded.

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InÖnite Sequences
Example 10. Investigate the following sequences; are they bounded or
not?
(a ) (n )n 2N

 
n
(b )
n+1 n 2N

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InÖnite Sequences

 
1
(c )
2n n 2N

(d ) ((1)n )n 2N

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InÖnite Sequences

DeÖnition 10.4. A sequence (an )n 2N is nondecreasing if an  an +1 for

all n. That is;
a1  a2  a3      an     .

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InÖnite Sequences

The sequence (an )n 2N is nonincreasing if an  an +1 for all n. That

is;
a1  a2  a3      an     .

The sequence (an )n 2N is monotonic if it is either nondecreasing or

nonincreasing.

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InÖnite Sequences
Example 11. Investigate the following sequences; are they monotonic?
 
1
(a ) 1  n
2 n 2N

 
n+1
(b )
n n 2N

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InÖnite Sequences

Note that the sequence ((1)n )n 2N is bounded but not convergent,

(2n )n 2N is (nondecreasing) monotonic but not converge. What
happens if a sequence has both of the properties?

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InÖnite Sequences

Theorem 5. If a sequence is bounded and monotonic, then the

sequence converges.

(We will not prove it, but it is not hard to believe: Let (an )n 2N
be a bounded and monotonic sequence. Since it is bounded there
exists real numbers m and M such that for all n

m  an  M.

Suppose that (an )n 2N is nondecreasing (you may follow the same way
to prove while it is supposed to be nonincreasing) so each term is
larger then the one before, but never larger than a Öxed value M. The
terms must then get closer and closer to some value between a 1 and
M. It need not be M, since M may be a too-generous upper bound,
the limit will be the smallest number that is above all terms a n .)

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InÖnite Sequences

 
Example 12. Show that n1/n n 2N converges.

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InÖnite Sequences

 
n!
Example 13. Show that converges.
nn n 2N

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InÖnite Sequences

DeÖnition 10.5. If (kn )n 2N is an increasing sequence of integers

then the sequence (akn )n 2N is called a subsequence of (an )n 2N .

Consider the sequence ((1)n )n 2N ; if

kn = 2n then the subsequence has the general term a2n = 1

kn = 2n + 1 then the subsequence has the general term a2n +1 = 1.

Theorem 6. If an ! L and (akn )n 2N is a subsequence of (an )n 2N ,

then akn ! L.

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InÖnite Sequences

Example 14. Show that the sequence with general term

3n
an = (1)n does not converge..
4n  1

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InÖnite Sequences

p p
Example 15. Let a1 = 2 and an +1 = 2 + an for all n  1. Show that
(an )n 2N converges and Önd the limit.

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InÖnite Sequences

Arithmetic Sequence An inÖnite sequence of numbers (an )n 2N is

called an arithmetic sequence if there exists a number d such that for
all n  1, an +1 = an + d.
The number d is called the common di§erence of the arithmetic
sequence.
Example 1. If (an )n 2N is a sequence with general term an = 5n + 2
then for all n  1
an +1  an = 5.
Thus (an )n 2N is an arithmetic sequence with common di§erence
d = 5.

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InÖnite Sequences
The sum of Örst n-terms of a given sequence will make sense when we
deal with series.
When we have an arithmetic sequence we may Önd a simple
representation for the sum of Örst n-terms. Let (an )n 2N be an
arithmetic sequence with common di§erence d, then for all n 2 N
an +1 = an + d.
Therefore; if we start with the Örst term

a1
a2 = a1 + d
a3 = a2 + d = a1 + 2d
a4 = a3 + d = a1 + 3d
..
.
an = a1 + (n  1) d, n  2

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InÖnite Sequences
and so
sn = a1 + a2 +    + an
= a1 + (a1 + d ) + (a1 + 2d ) +    + (a1 + (n  1) d )
(n  1) n
= na1 + d
2
2a1 + (n  1) d
= n
2
n
= ( a1 + an ) .
2
n
Example If an = + 2 for all n  1, Önd s20 .
3

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InÖnite Sequences

Geometric Sequence An inÖnite sequence of numbers (bn )n 2N is

called a geometric sequence if there exists a number r such that for
bn + 1
every n  1, bn +1 = bn r (or we may write = r ).
bn
The number r is called the common ratio of the geometric sequence.
Example If (bn )n 2N is a sequence with general term bn = 35n then
for all n  1
bn +1 = 3.5n +1 = bn 5
and thus it is a geometric sequence with common ratio r = 5.

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InÖnite Sequences

The sum of Örst n terms of a geometric sequence; let (bn )n 2N

be a qeometric sequence with common ratio r , then for all n 2 N,
bn +1 = bn r . Therefore; if we start with the Örst term

b1
b2 = b1 r
b3 = b2 r = b1 r 2
b4 = b3 r = b1 r 3
..
.
bn = bn 1 r = b1 r n 1 , for n  2

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InÖnite Sequences

and so

sn = b1 + b2 + b3 +    + bn
= b1 + b1 r + b1 r 2 +    + b1 r n  1
 
= b1 1 + r + r 2 + r 3 +    + r n  1 .

With a simple evaluation we obtain

8
< 1  rn
b1 , r 6= 1
sn = 1r
: nb ,r = 1
1

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