Lecture 17:Inference

Michael Fourman
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lvcnx6-0GhA

An argument is
a connected series of statements
to establish a proposition.

2
 Is this a valid argument?
• Assumptions:
If the races are fixed or the gambling houses
are crooked, then the tourist trade will decline.
If the tourist trade declines then the police
force will be happy.
The police force is never happy.

• Conclusion:
The races are not fixed

The argument is valid iff 2

if the assumptions are all true

then the conclusion is true
3
 RF the Races are Fixed
GC the Gambling houses are Crooked
TT the Tourist Trade will decline
PH the Police force will be Happy
8
>
> • If the races are fixed or the gambling houses
>
> are crooked then the tourist trade will decline.
>
>
>
> (RF _ GC) ! TT
<
Assumptions:
>
> • If the tourist trade declines then the police
>
> force will be happy. TT ! PH
>
>
>
>
:
• The police force is never happy. ¬PH
Conclusion: • The races are not fixed. ¬RF

The argument is valid i↵ the following entailment is valid:

(RF _ GC) ! TT, TT ! PH, ¬PH |= ¬RF

4
 We could check the validity of the entailment by
checking all sixteen assignments of truth values to the
four basic propositions.

Can we do do less work?

Consider our example

(RF _ GC) ! TT, TT ! PH, ¬PH |= ¬RF

Remember that an entailment is valid
unless there is a counterexample.

A counterexample is an assignment of truth values that

makes everything on the left true,
and everything on the right false.
5
 A counterexample is an assignment of truth values that
makes everything on the left true,
and everything on the right false.

The basic idea:

for each entailment Γ ⊨ Δ show that if there is a
counterexample to this entailment then there is a
counterexample to some simpler entailment.
Consider:

(RF _ GC) ! TT, TT ! PH, ¬PH |= ¬RF (1)

(RF _ GC) ! TT, TT ! PH, RF |= PH (2)

Any counterexample to (1) is a counterexample to (2)

(and vice versa).
6
 Consider:

(RF _ GC) ! TT, TT ! PH, ¬PH |= ¬RF (1)

(RF _ GC) ! TT, TT ! PH, RF |= PH (2)

Any counterexample to (1) is a counterexample to (2)

(and vice versa).
(2) is simpler - there are fewer logical operators

If (2) is valid, there is no counterexample,

so (1) is also valid

We write this as a rule

(RF _ GC) ! TT, TT ! PH, RF |= PH
(RF _ GC) ! TT, TT ! PH, ¬PH |= ¬RF
7
 There is a counterexample to the conclusion,
iff there is a counterexample to the assumption.

Therefore ∴
If the assumption of the rule (above the line) is valid,
then the conclusion (below the line) is valid.

(RF _ GC) ! TT, TT ! PH, RF |= PH

(RF _ GC) ! TT, TT ! PH, ¬PH |= ¬RF

8
 Now consider

(RF _ GC) ! TT, TT ! PH, RF |= PH (2)

Any counterexample will make TT ! PH true so it will

either make TT false, in which case it is a counterexample to

(RF _ GC) ! TT, RF |= PH, TT (3)

or make PH true, in which case it is a counterexample to

(RF _ GC) ! TT, PH, RF |= PH (4)

(or both).
There is a counter-example to (2) i↵ there is a counter-
example to (at least) one of (3), (4).

9
 Now consider

(RF _ GC) ! TT, TT ! PH, RF |= PH (2)

Any counterexample will make TT ! PH true so it will

either make TT false, in which case it is a counterexample to

(RF _ GC) ! TT, RF |= PH, TT (3)

or make PH true, in which case it is a counterexample to

(RF _ GC) ! TT, PH, RF |= PH (4)

This gives a rule:

(RF _ GC) ! TT, RF |= PH, TT (RF _ GC) ! TT, PH, RF |= PH
(RF _ GC) ! TT, TT ! PH, RF |= PH
There is a counter-example to the conclusion i↵ there is
a counter-example to (at least) one of the assumptions.
10
 Putting these two rules together
we start to build a proof tree

(RF _ GC) ! TT, RF |= PH, TT (RF _ GC) ! TT, PH, RF |= PH

(RF _ GC) ! TT, TT ! PH, RF |= PH
(RF _ GC) ! TT, TT ! PH, ¬PH |= ¬RF

If we have a counterexample to the conclusion then we

have a counterexample to at least one of the assumptions

11
 Now consider

(RF _ GC) ! TT, PH, RF |= PH (4)

Any counterexample would make PH true and make PH false, but

this is impossible, so there are no counterexamples.
We draw a line over (4) to make a rule with no assumptions.

(RF _ GC) ! TT, PH, RF |= PH

We still have the key property:

• there is a counterexample to the conclusion i↵ there is a
counterexample to (at least) one of the assumptions

12
 Only one assumption remains

(RF _ GC) ! TT, RF |= PH, TT (RF _ GC) ! TT, PH, RF |= PH

(RF _ GC) ! TT, TT ! PH, RF |= PH
(RF _ GC) ! TT, TT ! PH, ¬PH |= ¬RF

If we have a counterexample to the conclusion then we

have a counterexample to at least one of the assumptions.

Our next step should be familiar.

13
 We follow a pattern
used earlier
` A, ,B `
(! L)
,A ! B `
✓ ◆
with = RF, A = RF _ GC,
B = TT, = PH, TT

RF |= PH, TT, RF _ GC TT, RF |= PH, TT

(RF _ GC) ! TT, RF |= PH, TT (RF _ GC) ! TT, PH, RF |= PH
(RF _ GC) ! TT, TT ! PH, RF |= PH
(RF _ GC) ! TT, TT ! PH, ¬PH |= ¬RF

14
 Another pattern
we used earlier

(I)
,A ` ,A

(with A = TT, = RF, = PH)

RF |= PH, TT, RF _ GC TT, RF |= PH, TT

(RF _ GC) ! TT, RF |= PH, TT (RF _ GC) ! TT, PH, RF |= PH
(RF _ GC) ! TT, TT ! PH, RF |= PH
(RF _ GC) ! TT, TT ! PH, ¬PH |= ¬RF

15
 Now consider

RF |= PH, TT, RF _ GC

Any counterexample will make both RF and GC false,

so it is a counterexample to

RF |= PH, TT, RF, GC

This gives a rule

RF |= PH, TT, RF, GC

RF |= PH, TT, RF _ GC

A valuation is a counter-example to the conclusion i↵ it

is a counter-example to the assumption.
16
 The pattern for this rule is

` A, B,
(_R)
` A _ B,
Our proof is almost done

RF |= PH, TT, RF, GC

RF |= PH, TT, RF _ GC TT, RF |= PH, TT
(RF _ GC) ! TT, RF |= PH, TT (RF _ GC) ! TT, PH, RF |= PH
(RF _ GC) ! TT, TT ! PH, RF |= PH
(RF _ GC) ! TT, TT ! PH, ¬PH |= ¬RF

17
 Immediate!

(I)
,A ` ,A

RF |= PH, TT, RF, GC

RF |= PH, TT, RF _ GC TT, RF |= PH, TT
(RF _ GC) ! TT, RF |= PH, TT (RF _ GC) ! TT, PH, RF |= PH
(RF _ GC) ! TT, TT ! PH, RF |= PH
(RF _ GC) ! TT, TT ! PH, ¬PH |= ¬RF

18
 Gentzen’s Rules (I)
(I)
1924 ,A ` ,A
1945
, A, B ` ` A, B,
(^L) (_R)
,A ^ B ` ` A _ B,

,A ` ,B ` ` A, ` B,
(_L) (^R)
,A _ B ` ` A ^ B,

` A, , B ` a sequent, Γ ⊢ ,ΔA ` B,
(! L) (! R)
, A ! B where
` Γ and Δ are finite sets of`expressions
A ! B,
is valid iff
` A,
whenever every expression ,inAΓ`is true
(¬L) (¬R)
, ¬A `some expression in Δ is` true ¬A,

19 Gerhard Karl Erich Gentzen (November 24, 1909 – August 4, 1945)

 Gentzen’s Rules (I)
(I)
,A ` ,A
, A, B ` ` A, B,
(^L) (_R)
,A ^ B ` ` A _ B,

,A ` ,B ` ` A, ` B,
(_L) (^R)
,A _ B ` ` A ^ B,

` A, a counterexample
,B ` to the sequent
, A ` B,Γ ⊢ Δ,
is a (! L) that makes
valuation (! R)
,A ! B ` ` A ! B,
every expression in Γ true
and
` A, ,A `
every expression in Δ false
(¬L) (¬R)
, ¬A ` ` ¬A,
20 (a sequent is valid iff it has no counterexample)
 (I)
A, B ` A, B
(^L)
A ^ B ` A, B
(_R)
A^B `A_B
21
 A rule
, A ` B,
(! R)
` A ! B,
A valuation is a counterexample to the top line
iff it is a counterexample to the bottom line

22
 Another rule

` A, ,B `
(! L)
,A ! B `
A valuation is a counterexample to the bottom line
iff it is a counterexample to
at least one of the entailments on the top line

23
 a valuation is a it is a counterexample
counterexample to
the conclusion iff to at least one
assumption
(I)
,A ` ,A
, A, B ` ` A, B,
(^L) (_R)
,A ^ B ` ` A _ B,

,A ` ,B ` ` A, ` B,
(_L) (^R)
,A _ B ` ` A ^ B,

` A, ,B ` , A ` B,
(! L) (! R)
,A ! B ` ` A ! B,

` A, ,A `
(¬L) (¬R)
, ¬A ` ` ¬A,
24
 a valuation is a it is a counterexample
counterexample to
the conclusion iff to at least one
assumption
(I)
,A ` ,A
, A, B ` ` A, B,
(^L) (_R)
,A ^ B ` ` A _ B,

,A ` ,B ` ` A, ` B,
(_L) (^R)
,A _ B ` ` A ^ B,

` A, ,B ` , A ` B,
(! L) (! R)
,A ! B ` ` A ! B,

` A, ,A `
(¬L) (¬R)
, ¬A ` ` ¬A,
25
 ,A ` ,B ` ` A, ` B,
(_L) (I) (^R)
,A _ B ` ,A ` , A ` A ^ B,
,A ` ` A,
` A, , A ^ B
, B`` (^L1) B, (_R1)
, A_`B,
(! L) `A (! R)
,A ! B ` ` A ! B,
,B ` ` B,
(^L2) ` _ B, (_R2)
, A ^`BA,` (¬L)
,A
`A (¬R)
, ¬A ` ` ¬A,
,A ` ,B ` ` A, ` B,
?? (_L) (^R)
,A _ B ` ` A ^ B,
A ! (B ! C) ` B ! (A ! C)
` A, ,B ` , A ` B,
(! L) (! R)
,A ! B ` ` A ! B,

` A, ,A `
(¬L) (¬R)
, ¬A ` ` ¬A,

26
 ,A ` ,B ` ` A, ` B,
(_L) (I) (^R)
,A _ B ` ,A ` , A ` A ^ B,
,A ` ` A,
` A, , A ^ B
, B`` (^L1) B, (_R1)
, A_`B,
(! L) `A (! R)
,A ! B ` ` A ! B,
,B ` ` B,
(^L2) ` _ B, (_R2)
, A ^`BA,` (¬L)
,A
`A (¬R)
, ¬A ` ?? ` ¬A,
this goal , A ` A! ` ! C) ` B `!
, B(B A,(A !`C)
B,
(_L) (^R)
,A _ B ` ` A ^ B,
Γ, A → B ⊢ Δ
` A, ,B ` , A ` B,
matches the, A
conclusion
!B`
of (→ L) ` A ! B,
(! L) (! R)
where
Γ is empty ` A, ,A `
(¬L) (¬R)
Δ is B→(A→C)
, ¬A ` ` ¬A,
A is A
B is B→C
27
 ,A ` ,B ` ` A, ` B,
(_L) (I) (^R)
,A _ B ` ,A ` , A ` A ^ B,
,A ` ` A,
` A, , A ^ B
, B`` (^L1) B, (_R1)
, A_`B,
(! L) `A (! R)
,A ! B ` ` A ! B,
,B ` ` B,
(^L2) ` _ B, (_R2)
, A ^`BA,` ??(¬L)
,A
`A (¬R)
, ¬A ` ` ¬A,
this goal : A ! (B ! C) ` B ! (A ! C)
,A ` ,B ` ` A, ` B,
(_L) (^R)
,A _ B ` ` A ^ B,
matches Γ ⊢Α → B ,Δ
` A, ,B ` , A ` B,
(! L) (! R)
which is the, Aconclusion
!B` of (→ R) ` A ! B,
where
` A,
Γ is Α→(B→C) ,A `
(¬L) (¬R)
, ¬A ` ` ¬A,
Δ is empty
A is B
B is Α→C
28
 ,A ` ,B ` ` A, ` B,
(_L) (I) (^R)
,A _ B ` ,A ` , A ` A ^ B,
,A ` ` A,
` A, , A ^ B
, B`` (^L1) B, (_R1)
, A_`B,
(! L) `A (! R)
,A ! B ` ` A ! B,
,B ` ` B,
, A ^`BA,`Γ (¬L) , Α `B_ B, (_R2)
,Δ
(^L2) ⊢ , A` A (¬R)
, ¬A ` ?? ` ¬A,
, A `A ! ,(BB `! C), B
` A` !
A, C ` B,
(_L) (! (^R)
R)
A ! (B ! C) ` B ! (A `!A C)
,A _ B ` ^ B,

` A, ,B ` , A ` B,
this goal ,A ! B `
(! L)
` A ! B,
(! R)
matches the conclusion of (→ R)
where ` A,
(¬L)
,A `
(¬R)
, ¬A `
Γ is Α→(B→C) ` ¬A,

Δ is empty
A is B
B is Α→C
29
 ,A ` ,B ` ` A, ` B,
(_L) (I) (^R)
,A _ B ` ,A ` , A ` A ^ B,
,A ` ` A,
` A, , A ^ B
, B`` (^L1) B, (_R1)
, A_`B,
(! L) `A (! R)
,A ! B ` ` A ! B,
,B ` ` B,
(^L2) ` _ B, (_R2)
, A ^`BA,` (¬L)
,A
`A (¬R)
, ¬A ` ` ¬A,
,A ` ,B ` ` A, ` B,
(_L) (^R)
,A _ B ` ?? ` A ^ B,
A ! (B ! C), B, A ` C
` A, ,B ` (! R)
, A ` B,
A ! (B
,A ! B ` ! (!
C), L)
B ` A ! C
` A ! B,
(! R)
(! R)
A ! (B ! C) ` B ! (A ! C)
` A, ,A `
(¬L) (¬R)
, ¬A ` ` ¬A,

30
 ,A ` ,B ` ` A, ` B,
(_L) (I) (^R)
,A _ B ` ,A ` , A ` A ^ B,
,A ` ` A,
` A, , A ^ B
, B`` (^L1) B, (_R1)
, A_`B,
(! L) `A (! R)
,A ! B ` ` A ! B,
,B ` ` B,
(^L2) ` _ B, (_R2)
, A ^`BA,` (¬L)
,A
`A (¬R)
, ¬A ` ` ¬A,
,A ` ,B ` ` A, ` B,
(I)(_L) ?? (^R)
,A _ B ` ` A ^ B,
B, A ` A, C B ! C, B, A ` C
(! L)
` A,A ! ,(B
B ` ! C), B, A `, CA ` B,
,A
A!! B(B
(! L)
` ! C), B ` A ! (!
` AC! B, R)(! R)

(! R)
A ! (B` ! A, C) ` B ! (A, A `! C)
(¬L) (¬R)
, ¬A ` ` ¬A,

31
 ,A ` ,B ` ` A, ` B,
(_L) (I) (^R)
,A _ B ` ,A ` , A ` A ^ B,
,A ` ` A,
` A, , A ^ B
, B`` (^L1) B, (_R1)
, A_`B,
(! L) `A (! R)
,A ! B ` ` A ! B,
,B ` ` B,
(^L2) ` _ B, (_R2)
, A ^`BA,` (¬L)
,A
`A (¬R)
, ¬A ` ` ¬A,
,A ` ,B ` ` A, ` B,
(_L) (^R)
,A _ B ` (I)` A ^ B, (I)
B, A ` B, C C, B, A ` C
(I) (! L)
B, A ` A,` C
A, ,B ` B ! C, B, , AA` `
B,C
, A ! B `
(! L)
` A ! B,
(! L)
(! R)
A ! (B ! C), B, A ` C
(! R)
A ! (B `! A, C), B ` A !, AC`
(¬L) (!
(¬R)R)
A ! (B ! , ¬AC) ` ` B ! (A ! C)
` ¬A,

32