Research

Methodology
 Importance of Research and
Development (R&D)
• Critical for progress and invention, driven by inquiry and doubt.

• Encourages scientific, inductive thinking and logical organization.

• Important for solving business and government issues.

• Serves as a foundation for government policies, including budgeting and

resource allocation.
 Introduction to research and
Research methodology
• Scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific
topic
• Art of scientific investigation
• Careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in
any branch of knowledge- Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current
English
• systematized effort to gain new knowledge-Redman and Mory
• movement from the known to the unknown
• Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a
technical sense
 Introduction to research and
Research methodology
• Clifford Woody:
research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested
solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching
conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the
formulating hypothesis.

• D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences

The manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct
or verify knowledge - construction of theory or in the practice of an art.

• Systematic method- enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or
data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain conclusions- solutions(s) or certain
generalisations (theoretical formulation)
 Research & its Objectives
• To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this object
in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies)

• To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group(studies

with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies)

• To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies)

• To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).
 Types of Research
• Research can be classified in various ways based on its purpose, methods, and environment.
• Understanding the different types of research is crucial for designing effective studies and drawing
meaningful conclusions.
• the major types of research, and a comprehensive overview to guide researchers and decision-makers
• Types of Research
q Descriptive Research
q Analytical Research
q Applied Research
q Fundamental Research
q Quantitative Research
q Qualitative Research
q Conceptual Research
q Empherical Research
 Descriptive vs. Analytical Research

• Descriptive research focuses on: • Analyzes available facts and information to

• Describing the current state of affairs, often make critical evaluations.
through surveys and fact-finding inquiries. • The researcher uses existing data to uncover
• Here researcher has no control over the underlying causes and draw conclusions.
variables and simply reports what is • More focused on understanding the "why"
happening. behind phenomena.
• Useful for understanding trends and patterns.
 Applied Vs Fundamental research

• Aims to find solutions for immediate, • Is known as basic or pure research.

practical problems facing society or • Concerned with expanding the overall body
organizations. of scientific knowledge.
• Focused on discovering information that can • It seeks to uncover new theories and make
be directly applied to real-world challenges. generalizations, rather than solving specific
problems.
 Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research

• Is based on the measurement of • Is concerned with qualitative

quantity or amount. phenomena, such as investigating the
• It is applicable to phenomena that reasons behind human behavior.
can be expressed in terms of quantity, • Uses in-depth interviews and
such as statistics and numerical data. projective techniques to uncover
underlying motives and desires.
 Conceptual Vs Empherical Research

• Is related to abstract ideas or • Relies on experience or observation.

theories. • It is data-driven and involves
• Used by philosophers and thinkers experiments or observations to test
to develop new concepts or hypotheses and draw conclusions.
reinterpret existing ones.
 Other Types of Research
Time-based Environment-based
Research can be either one-time or Research can be conducted in a field
longitudinal, depending on the time frame setting, laboratory, or through simulation,
of the study. depending on the environment.

Purpose-based Historical
Research can be exploratory, formalized, Historical research utilizes historical
clinical, or decision-oriented, depending sources to study ideas and events of the
on its purpose. past.
 Research Approaches
q There are two basic approaches to research
Ø quantitative approach
Ø qualitative approach

q Quantitative
Ø Involves the generation of data in quantitative form which can be subjected to rigorous quantitative
analysis in a formal and rigid fashion.
Ø Sub-categories:
@ Inferential @ Experimental @ Simulation

q Qualitative
Ø Is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions and behaviour.
Ø Here research is a function of researcher’s insights and impressions.
Ø It generates results either in non-quantitative form or in the form which are not subjected to
rigorous quantitative analysis.
Ø Here the techniques of focus group interviews, projective techniques and depth interviews are used.
 Research Approaches
q Inferential approach
§ Formation of a data base to infer characteristics or relationships of population.
§ A survey research with a sample of population-studied (questioned or observed) to determine
characteristics, and to infer that the population has the same characteristics.

q Experimental approach
§ Characterised by control over the research environment where few variables can be manipulated
to observe their effect on other variables.

q Simulation approach
§ Involves construction of an artificial environment within which relevant information and data can
be generated.
§ Observation of the dynamic behaviour of a system (or its sub-system) under controlled conditions.
§ In the context of business and social sciences applications refers to “the operation of a numerical
model that represents the structure of a dynamic process.
 Significance of Research
Ø Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the
development of logical habits of thinking and organisation.

Ø The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related to

business or to the economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times.

Ø Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic
system.

Ø Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning
problems of business and industry.

Ø Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships

and in seeking answers to various social problems.
 Significance of Research
Ø The significance of research can also be understood keeping in view the following:

Ø To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean a
careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure

Ø To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of livelihood;

Ø To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights;

Ø To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles and creative
work;

Ø To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalisations of new theories.
Research Process
 Criteria of Good Research

• Good research is systematic

• Good research is logical

• Good research is empirical

• Good research is replicable

 Criteria of Good Research
• The purpose of research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
• The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher
to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been
attained.
• The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as
objective as possible.
• The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate
their effects upon the findings.
• The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods of
analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked
carefully.
• Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to those
for which the data provide an adequate basis.
• Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good
reputation in research and is a person of integrity.
§ An individual (or a group or an organisation), called ‘I,’ to whom the problem can
be attributed occupies an environment, ‘N’ defined by values of the uncontrolled
variables, Yj.
§ At least two courses of action C1 and C2, to be pursued each defined by one or
more values of the controlled variables.

§ At least two possible outcomes O1 and O2, of the course of action, where one
should be preferable to the other. i.e. at least one outcome that the researcher
wants (an objective).
§ The courses of action to provide some chance of obtaining the objective, but they
cannot provide the same chance, otherwise the choice would not matter.

§ Thus, if P (Oj | I, Cj, N) represents the probability that an outcome Oj will occur, if I
select Cj in N, then PbO1| I , C1, Ng ¹ PbO1| I , C2 , Ng .
§ In simple words, we can say that the choices must have unequal efficiencies for
the desired outcomes.
The components of a research problem cab be stated as:
q There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the
problem.
q There must be some objective(s) to be attained at. If one wants nothing, one
cannot have a problem.

q There must be alternative means (or the courses of action) for obtaining the
objective(s)one wishes to attain. At least two means should be available to a
researcher for if he has no choice of means, he cannot have a problem.
q There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the
selection of alternatives. The research must answer the question concerning the
relative efficiency of the possible alternatives.
q There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains.
 Selecting the Research Problem
The following points may be observed by a researcher in selecting a research problem or a subject

for research:

• Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a difficult task to throw

any new light in such a case.

• Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher.

• Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.

• The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the related research

material or sources of research are within one’s reach.

• The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a researcher, the costs involved, the

time factor are few other criteria that must also be considered in selecting a problem.

• In other words, before the final selection of a problem is done, a researcher must ask himself the

following questions:

(a) Whether he is well equipped in terms of his background to carry out the research?

(b) Whether the study falls within the budget he can afford?

(c) Whether the necessary cooperation can be obtained from those who must participate in research

as subjects?

• If the answers to all these questions are in the affirmative, one may become sure so far as the

practicability of the study is concerned.

• The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study.

 Necessity of Defining the Problem
• Quite often we all hear that a problem clearly stated is a problem half solved. This statement
signifies the need for defining a research problem.
• The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help to discriminate
relevant data from the irrelevant ones.
• A proper definition of research problem will enable the researcher to be on the track whereas an
ill-defined problem may create hurdles.
• Questions like:
q What data are to be collected?
q What characteristics of data are relevant and need to be studied?
q What relations are to be explored?
 Necessity of Defining the Problem
q What techniques are to be used for the purpose?
q researcher who can well plan his strategy and find answers to all such questions only when
the research problem has been well defined.
q Defining a research problem properly is a prerequisite for any study and is a step of the
highest importance.
• In fact, formulation of a problem is often more essential than its solution.
• It is only on careful detailing the research problem that we can work out the research design
and can smoothly carry on all the consequential steps involved while doing research.
Techniques Involved in Defining a Problem
• Statement of the problem in a general way

• Understanding the nature of the problem

• Surveying the available literature

• Developing the ideas through discussions

• Rephrasing the research problem

Following points must also be observed while defining a research problem:
• Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings used in the
statement of the problem, should be clearly defined.
• Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research problem should
be clearly stated.

• A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation (i.e., the criteria for
the selection of the problem) should be provided.
• The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available must also be
considered by the researcher in defining the problem.

• The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to be
studied must be mentioned explicitly in defining a research problem.
 Meaning of Research Design
The design decisions happen to be in respect of
q What is the study about?
q Why is the study being made?
q Where will the study be carried out?
q What type of data is required?
q Where can the required data be found?
q What periods of time will the study include?
q What will be the sample design?
q What techniques of data collection will be used?
q How will the data be analyzed?
q In what style will the report be prepared?
The overall research design can be split into the following parts:
• The sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items
to be observed for the given study
• The observational design which relates to the conditions under which
the observations are to be made.
• The statistical design which concerns with the question of how many
items are to be observed and how the information and data gathered
are to be analyzed.
• The operational design which deals with the techniques by which the
procedures specified in the sampling, statistical and observational
designs can be carried out.
From previous knowledge important features of a research design
can be defined:
• It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information
relevant to the research
• problem.
• It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering
and analysing the data.
• It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are
done under these two constraints.
Research design must least contains:

• A clear statement of the research problem

• Procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information

• The population to be studied

• Methods to be used in processing and analysing data.

 Need for Research Design
• It facilitates the smooth sailing of various research operations making research
more efficient yielding maximal information with minimal expenditure of effort,
time and money.
• Research design is advance planning of methods to be adopted for collecting the
relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis, keeping in view the
objective of the research and the availability of staff, time and money.
• It has a great bearing on the reliability of the results arrived at and constitutes
the firm foundation of the entire edifice of the research work.
• The design helps the researcher to organize his ideas in a form whereby it will
be possible for him to look for flaws and inadequacies. Such a design can even be
given to others for their comments and critical evaluation.
 Feature of a Good Design
• Good design is often characterised by adjectives like flexible,
appropriate, efficient, economical etc.
• Design which minimises bias and maximises the reliability of
the data collected and analysed
• Design which gives the smallest experimental error is
• Design which yields maximal information and provides an
opportunity for considering many different aspects of a
problem
 Factors of a Research Design
Appropriate for a Particular Research
Problem
• The means of obtaining information

• The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any

• The objective of the problem to be studied

• The nature of the problem to be studied

• The availability of time and money for the research work

 Examples
• Research study happens to be an exploratory or a formulative
• Emphasis is on discovery of ideas and insights, the research design most
appropriate must be flexible enough to permit the consideration of many
different aspects of a phenomenon
• A study is accurate description of a situation or of an association between
variables (or in what are called the descriptive studies), accuracy
becomes a major consideration and a research design which minimises
bias and maximises the reliability of the evidence collected is considered
a good design.
• Studies involving the testing of a hypothesis of a causal relationship
between variables require a design which will permit inferences about
causality in addition to the minimisation of bias and maximisation of
reliability.
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS RELATING TO
RESEARCH DESIGN
• Dependent and independent variables

• Extraneous variable

• Control

• Confounded relationship
 Research Design in Case of
Exploratory Research Studies:
• Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research studies.
The main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more
precise investigation or of developing the working hypotheses from an
operational point of view

• The major emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights. As
such the research design appropriate for such studies must be flexible enough
to provide opportunity for considering different aspects of a problem under
study.

• Three considerations for such research:

q The survey of concerning literature;
q The experience survey
q The analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples.
 Research Design in Case of Descriptive
and Diagnostic Research Studies
• The design in such studies must be rigid and not flexible
• focus attention on the following:
(a) Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and why is it
being made?)
(b) Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering
data will be adopted?)
(c) Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?)
(d) Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what
time period should
the data be related?)
(e) Processing and analysing the data.
(f) Reporting the findings.
 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGNS
• Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles of experimental
designs:
(1) The Principle of Replication
(2) The Principle of Randomization

(3) Principle of Local Control.

 Sampling Design

• The process of obtaining information from a subset(sample) of a larger

group(Population)
• The results of sample are interpreted to make estimates for the larger
group.
• Its faster and cheaper than considering the entire population.
• Keys
• Selecting right people
– Scientific selection to represent the population

• Selecting right no. of people

– Minimize sampling error so that wrong people are not choosen
 Terminologies:

• Population: Entire group of people of interest to obtain

information
• Element: One unit from target population
• Sampling: Subset of the population

• Sampling frame: List of population from which a sample is

chosen
• Census: A polling of entire population
• Survey: A polling of the sample from target population
 Terminologies

• Parameter: Variable of interest

• Statistic: The information obtained from the sample w.r.t the
parameter
• Goal: to be able to make inferences about the population
parameters from knowledge of relevant statistics- to draw
general conclusions about the entire body of units.
• Critical Assumption: The sample chosen is representative if
population
 Sampling Process Steps:
• Define the population
• Identify the sampling frame
• Select a sampling design or procedure
• Determine the sample size
• Draw the sample
Sampling Design Process
 Define the Target Population
• Sampling Unit:
• Information availability in the population
• individuals over 20
• What are their characteristics
• Families with 2 kids
• Who should be excluded
• Extent: family who eat fast food
– Eg: Age, gender, product use, those in
• Timing:
industry
• Days
• Geographic area
• Months
• Element: Individuals, families
• Years
 Determine the Sampling Frame
• Obtaining a list of population
– Students who eat at McD
– Young students at random in street
– Phone book

• Proceudres
– People who have spent 2 to more hrs on internet in last week.
 Determine Sampling Frame
Select Sample Units

• Individuals

• Household

• Streets

• Telephone numbers

• Companies
Selecting Sampling Procedure
Probability Sampling
• Elements have equal chance of being included as a part of
sample (random selection)
• Simple Random

• Systematic
• Stratified
• Cluster
 Selecting Sampling Procedure
Non Probability Sampling

• Unequal chance of being included as a part of the sample (non

–random selection)

– convenience

– Judgement

– Snowball

– quota
 Probability Sampling
• Objective procedure where the probability of selection is non zero
and known in advance for each population unit.

• Information is obtained from a sample of target population

• Sampling error can be computed

• More expensive than non-probability sampling

 Simple Random
• Members of the population are selected directly form the
sampling frame.
• Equal probability of selection for every member (sample size/
Population size).
• Use random number table or random number generator.
• Ncn
• N: Population
• n: sample size
• C: combination
 Systematic Random Sampling
• Order all units in sample frame based on some variable and
number from 1 to N.
• Choose a random starting place from 1 to N and then sample
every k units after that.
Systematic Random Sampling
 Stratified Sampling
• The chosen sample is forced to contain units from each of
segments, or strata of the population.
– Year in school, geographic area, product use, etc.

• Divide population - mutually exclusive and exhaustive strata

based on population characteristics. Race, age, gender etc.
• Simple random samples are then drawn from each stratum.
 Cluster Sampling
• Cluster of population units are selected at random and then all or
some randomly chosen units in the selected clusters are studied.
• Steps:
• Population is divided in to subgroups/clusters which represent the
population
• Simple random sample of few clusters is selected
• All or few randomly chosen units in selected clusters are studied.
 Non Probability Sampling

• Subjective procedure where probability of selection for some

population units are zero or unknown before drawing the
sample.
• Information is from non representative sample population

• Sampling error not computable

• Survey results not projectable to popluation
 Non Probability Sampling
Advantages
• Cheaper and faster than probability
• Reasonable representative if collected in thorough manner
 Convenience Sampling
• A researcher’s convenience forms the basis for selecting sample
• People in my class
• Mall intercepts

• Specific characteristic people (Eg: Bald)

Judgement Sampling
A researcher exerts some effort in selecting a sample which is most
appropriate for the study.
 Snowball Sampling
• Selection if additional respondents isbased on referrals from initial
respondents
• Friends of friends
• Used to sample from low incidence or rare populations

Quota Sampling
• Population is divided into cells on the basis of relevant control
characteristics
• A sample unit is established for each sell
• 50 women, 50 men
• A convenience sample is drawn for each cell unit to meet the quota.
 Probability Vs Non Probability
Sampling
• NPS is less time consuming and less expensive
• Quantitative generalizations about the population can only be
done under probability sampling
• Statistics need to be applied to study non probability samples.
 Errors in Survey
• Random Sampling Error:
Sample is not representative if the population due to chance
Level is controlled by sample size
Larger sample size leads to a sampling error

• Non- sampling Errors:

Systematic error, level not controlled by sample size.
Non-response error, response or data error.
Module 4
 Module 4
Data Preparation