Module 3

Semiconductors

Semiconductors are materials whose electronic properties are intermediate between those
of metals and insulators. These intermediate properties are determined by the crystal
structure, bonding characteristics and electronic enegy bands. In free atoms, discrete energy
levels are presents; but in solid materials, the available energy levels are so close that they
form a band. The energy band in which valence electrons are present is called valence
band. Just above the valence band, there is an empty band called conduction band. The
gap between these two bands is called forbidden gap or band gap, where no electronic states
are present and is the amount of energy that should be imparted to the electron in valence
band for its migration to the conduction band.
In good conductors such as metals the conduction band overlaps the valence band while
in insulators there is a large gap between valence band and conduction band. Semiconduc-
tors have a small energy gap between the valence and conduction band that allows thermal
excitation of electrons from the valence band to conduction band. At absolute zero temper-
ature, semiconductors behave like insulators. Semiconductors are classified into two types,
Intrinsic (pure) semiconductor and Extrinsic (doped) semiconductors
Intrinsic semiconductors
A semiconductor in its pure (i.e., without any impurities) form is known as intrinsic semi-
conductor. Germanium and silicon in the pure form are two examples of intrinsic semicon-
ductors.
In an intrinsic semiconductors promotion of electrons from valence band to conduction
band create a vacancy in the valance band. This vacancy which carries a positive charge and
has a tendancy to attract electrons known as hole. In a semiconductors the current is due
to the flow of both free electrons and holes. In intrinsic semiconductor the concentration of
free electrons is equal to the concentration of holes. Electrons and holes are always created
in pairs. They are also called thermally generated carriers.
The electron concentration in the conduction band of an intrinsic semiconductor is given
by,
3/2
2πm∗e kT

n=2 e−(EC −EF )/kT
h2
or

n = NC e−(EC −EF )/kT − − − (1)

where,
3/2
2πm∗e kT

NC = 2
h2
NC is a temperature dependent material constant known as the effective density of states
in the conduction band.

1
 Similarly, the hole concentration in the valence band of an intrinsic semiconductor is
given by,
3/2
2πm∗h kT

p=2 e−(EF −EV )/kT
h2
or

p = NV e−(EF −EV )/kT

where,
3/2
2πm∗h kT

NV = 2
h2
NV is called the effective density of states in the valence band.

Extrinsic semiconductors
The conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor is very small to be put into any pratical ap-
plication. In order to increase its conductivity certain impurity are added in very small
proportion. The resultant semiconductor is known as extrinsic semiconductor. The process
of adding impurity is called doping and the impurity is known as dopant. The impurity-
produced electrons are not temperature-dependent but are voltage-dependent. Extrinsic
semiconductors are widely used in fabricating devices, these devices are generally known
as solid-state electronic devices. There are two types of extrinsic semiconductors, n-type
semiconductor and p-type semiconductor.

n-type semiconductor

n-type semiconductor is obtained by adding a pentavalent impurity such as phosphorous

to a pure crystal of silicon or germanium. A phosphorous atom has five valence electrons, it
forms four covalent bonds with neighbouring silicon atoms, while the fifth electron remains
loosely bound and it becomes free when a small amount of energy is supplied. Thus each
phosphorous atom donate a free electron to the crystal, hence it is known as donor impurity.
Upon donating the electron it becomes positive donor ion. Thus, addition of pentavalent
impurity increases the concentration of free electrons in the crystal. In addition to this

2
there are some thermally generated electron-hole pairs. As the concentration of the elec-
trons is more than that of holes, they are called majority charge carriers. Holes are called
minority charge carriers. As the current is mainly due to the free electrons, the resultant
semiconductors is known as n-type semiconductor.

p-type semiconductor
p-type semiconductor is obtained by adding a trivalent impurity such as boron or indium
to a pure crystal of silicon or germanium. Boron atom has three valence electrons, it forms
three covalent bonds with its neighbouring silicon atoms. In the fourth bond their is a
vacancy of the electron. Thus, additon of each boron or indium atoms create hole in the
crystal. This hole has a tendancy to attract the electrons from the neighbouring bonds.
Thus, the indium is known as an acceptor impurity, upon accepting the electrons it becomes
an negative acceptor ion. In addtion to the holes created by the impurity, there are few
thermally generated electron-hole pairs. As the number of holes more than the electrons,
holes are known as majority charge carriers and free electrons are called minority charge
carriers. As the current is mainly carried by the holes, the resultant semiconductors is
known as p-type semiconductor.

Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductors

In a pure semiconductor, the electrons in the conduction band cluster very close to the
bottom edge of the band, and we assume that electrons are located right at the bottom
edge of the conduction band, as shown in figure. Similarly, we assume that the holes are
at the top edge of the valence band. The electron concentration in the conduction band is
given by

n = NC e−(EC −EF )/kT

The hole concentration in the valence band is given by

p = NV e−(EF −EV )/kT

In an intrinsic semiconductor, the electron and hole concentrations are equal. Thus,
n=p

3
 NC e−(EC −EF )/kT = NV e−(EF −EV )/kT
Taking logarithm on both sides, we get

(EC − EF ) NV (EF − EV )
− = ln −
kT NC kT
NV
−EC − EF = kT ln − EF + EV
NC
NV
2EF = (EC + EV ) + kT ln
NC
EC + EV 1 NV
EF = + kT ln
2 2 NC
But,
3/2 3/2
2πm∗e kT 2πm∗h kT
 
NC = 2 and NV = 2
h2 h2
Therefore,
 ∗ 3/2
NV mh
=
NC m∗e
   ∗
NV 3 mh
ln = ln
NC 2 m∗e
 ∗
EC + EV 3 mh
EF = + kT ln
2 4 m∗e
If the effective mass of a free electron is assumed to be equal to the effective mass of a
hole, i.e.,

m∗h = m∗e

4
 m∗h
 
ln =0
m∗e
Therefore,

EC + EV
EF =
2
or

EC − EV
EF = + EV
2
Eg
EF = + EV
2
If we denote the top of the valence band EV as zero level, i.e., EV = 0, then

Eg
EF =
2
The above result shows that in an intrinsic semiconductor the Fermi level lies in the
middle of the forbidden gap.

Conductivity of semiconductors
Consider a semiconductor of area of cross section A, in which current I is flowing. Let vd
be the velocity of electron whose flow in the conductor constitutes the electric current.

∴ I = ne eAvd
where, ne be the number of electrons per unit volume

I
Current density J = = ne evd
A
Mobility of electron
vd
µe =
E
or
v d = µe E
J = ne evd = ne eµe E = σe E

5
i.e.,
σe = ne eµe
where σe is the conductivity due to electrons
Similarly, conductivity due to holes σh is given by

σh = nh eµh

Total conductivity σ is given by

σ = σe + σh = ne eµe + nh eµh

σ = e(ne µe + nh µh )
For intrinsic semiconductor ne = nh = ni where ni is intrinsic concentration

∴ σi = eni (µe + µh )
1
The mobilities depend on temperature as a modest power law i.e., µ varies as 3 or
T2
3 3
µe = αT − 2 and µp = βT − 2

3
∴ σi = eni (α + β)T − 2
We know that for an intrinsic semiconductor ni = n = p is given by
 3
2πkT 3 Eg
n2i = (np) = 4 (m∗e m∗p ) 2 e− kT
h2
or
3
2πkT 2 Eg
∗ ∗ 34 − 2kT 3 E
− g
ni = 2 (m e mp ) e = CT 2 e 2kT
h2
 32
where m∗e = m∗p = m and C = 2 2πmkT

h2
is a constant
3 3 Eg
σi = e(α + β)CT 2 T − 2 e− 2kT
e(α + β)C = B is a constant
Eg
∴ σi = Be− 2kT

Direct and indirect band gap semiconductors

Two types of band structures arise in semiconductors, they are Direct band gap semicon-
ductor and Indirect band gap semiconductor.
Direct Band Gap Semiconductors: In a direct band gap semiconductor material,
the minimum of conduction band and the maximum of valence band lie at the same value
of k. So, they are just directly above and below each other in a graph of E − k, as shown in
figure (a). Due to the law of momentum conservation, direct gap materials have a strong
interaction with light. Examples are GaAS, InP, GaN, InN etc.

6
Figure 1: E − k graph of (a) Direct band gap semiconductor; (b) Indirect band gap semi-
conductor

Indirect Band Gap Semiconductors: In some semiconductors the bottom of the

conduction band does not occur at the k = 0 point, but at certain other points such
semiconductors are called indirect semiconductors. In the energy bands of these semicon-
ductors there is a a displacement in k between the minimum upper and lower bands as
shown in figure (b), which impose an added restriction on the radiation transition. Indirect
band gap materials are not efficient radiators due to this restriction. Hence, indirect band
gap semiconductor such as silicon is successfully used in making miniature semiconductor
switches, for micro-electronic applications, which do not demand highly efficient radiative
characteristics. Examples are Si, Ge, AlAs etc.

7
 3.2 Dielectric Materials

1) Basic Definitions:
A) Dielectric materials: The dielectric materials are the perfect insulators such as glass,
porcelain, wood, rubber etc. which provides insulation between the two media (conductors) at
different potentials and also serves as charge storing aid. It also helps in increase of capacitance
of a capacitor.

B) Electric dipole: A pair of equal and opposite charges separated by very small distance

C) Dipole moment: The product of the magnitude of one the charge and the distance of their
separation.
  ql
D) Polarization: The displacement of charges in the atoms or molecules of a dielectric under the
action of an applied field leading to the development of dipole moment is called polarization and
the separated charges are called polarization charges.
+

E
++++++


E) Polarizability: When the bulk material made of simple atoms on subjecting it to electric field
E it acquires the dipole moment  , where  varies is directly as E
  E   =  E;  is polarizability of atoms. Its unit is Fm2.

2) Explain different types of polarization.

Ans: There are four types of polarizations.

A) Electronic polarization: This type of polarization

occurs due to displacement of positive and negative charges
in the dielectric material due to external electric field, leading
to dipole moment. This process occurs throughout the
material. Thus the material as a whole will be polarized. The
electronic polarization sets in over a very short period of
time, of the order of 10-14 to 10-15 s. It is independent of
temperature.
   1
For rare gas atoms;  e  0 r ; N => No. of atoms per unit volume.
N

Dr. Deepa Urs MV Page 1

B) Ionic polarization: Ionic polarization
occurs in ionic crystals. It occurs due to
the elastic displacement of positive and
negative ions from their equilibrium
positions. Let us take the example of
sodium chloride crystal. When NaCl is
subjected to dc electric field, the sodium
and chlorine ions are displaced in
opposite directions until ionic bonding
forces stop the process. The dipole moment of the molecule increases consequently. When the
field direction is reversed the ions move closer and again the dipole moment undergoes a change.
Thus, dipoles are induced. The induced dipole moment is proportional to the applied field and is
expressed as, µi = αiE where αi is known as ionic polarizability. For most of the materials, the
ionic polarizability is less than the electronic polarizability. Typically,
1
i  e .
10
The ionic polarization takes 10-11 to 10-14 s to build up, and is not influenced by temperature.

C) Orientation polarization: It occurs in

dielectric materials of solid or liquid
with permanent dipole moment. On
applying electric field, the molecules
align in the direction of the field. The
orientational polarization depends on
temperature.
The orientation polarizability is,
2
o  , where μ is the permanent
3kT
dipole moment, k is the Boltzmann constant and T is the temperature.

The orientation polarization is strongly temperature dependent. As the process of orientation

polarization involves rotation of molecules, it takes relatively longer time than the electronic and
ionic polarizations. The buildup time is of the order of 10 -10 s or more.

D) Space charge Polarization: It occurs in heterogeneous dielectric materials in which there is a

change in electrical properties between different phases and in the homogeneous dielectrics that
contain impurities, pores filled with air,
inclusions of hygroscopic water etc. In
materials like plastics, ceramics etc., when
an electric field is applied, the electric
charges those migrate within the impurity
regions store up at the interfaces. The space
charge polarization takes generally a longer
time and therefore occurs at low
frequencies.

Dr. Deepa Urs MV Page 2

Total Polarization:
In a material, which can experience all forms of polarization, the total polarization is equal to the
sum of the electronic, ionic, orientation and Space charge polarization. The total polarization is
given by
Ptotal = Pe + Pi + Po + Ps

In general, the space charge polarization is very small and negligible. Therefore, total
polarization in a material may be taken as due to the other three contributions only. Thus,

Ptotal = Pe + Pi + Po

(*Note: It is possible for one or more of the contributions to the polarization to be either absent or
negligible in magnitude relative to the others.)

3) What is Internal field? Derive the expression for internal field for a linear array of atoms in
a dielectric material.
Ans: Internal field or the local field is the electric field that acts at the site of any given atom of a
solid or a liquid dielectric subjected to an external field, and is the resultant of the applied field
and the field due to surrounding dipoles.

Expression for internal field for a linear array of atoms in a dielectric material.
E E
C1 B1 A1 X A2 B2 C2
E E
p r

r1 r r2 d d d d d d

N Figure: 2
O 
l
2
M
Fig: 1

Let the interatomic distance be‘d’ in Fig. 2 and the dipole moment be  for each atom. Let us
consider an atom X, the total field at X is given as follows:
From the Fig.1 the electric field at point P due to electric dipoles is given as,
 cos
Er  ---------------------- (1)
2 0 r 3

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  sin 
E  ---------------------- (2) where r = OP
4 0 r 3
From (1) and (2) E at X due to dipole A1 , (r = d and since X is along A1,   0 )
 cos 
E = 0, hence E = Er=
2 0 r 3
If E1 is the field at X due to dipoles A1and A2,
 
E1 = 2  E1 =
2 0 d 3
 0 d 3
Similarly E2 is the field at X due to dipoles B1and B2,
 
E2 = 2  E2 =
2 0 2d   0 2d 3
3


Similarly, E3=
 0 3d 3

 En =
 0 nd 3

 Total field at X due to all dipoles in linear array is E’ =E1+ E2 + E3+ ------------------
  1 1 
E’= 3 
1  3  3          
 0 d  2 3 
 
1
3  3
E’= Where n=1, 2, 3, ------------- 
 0 d n 1 n
1.2  
1
 E’=
 0 d 3
--------------------- > (3) as 
n 1 n
3
=1.2

From the definition of internal field Ei is given as,

1.2 
Ei = E + E’ = E+ ---------------------- > (4)
 0 d 3
If  e is the electronic polarizability    e E i ------------- > (5)
1.2 e Ei
Ei= E+ ------------ (6)
 0 d 3
  P 1
In case of 3-d atoms E i  E    P or Elorentz  E  where  
0  3 0 3

Ei =

Dr. Deepa Urs MV Page 4

4) Derive Clausius – Mossotti Equation.
Ans: Consider an elemental solid dielectric material of dielectric constant  r . If N is the number
of atoms per unit volume of the material,  is the dipole moment, then
Dipole moment = N 
Unit volume

We know that    e E i , hence

Dipole moment = N  e Ei --------------------- (1)
Unit volume

Also Dipole moment = P , the polarization from the definition. Hence eq. (1) becomes
Unit volume
P
P = N  e Ei  E  ---------------------- (2)
N
i
e

P
Also, P   0  r  1E  E  -------------- (3)
 0  r  1
P
The internal field in case of 3-d is given as Ei  E  -------------- (4)
3 0
Substituting (2) and (3) in (4),
P P P 1 1  1 1
 +     
N e  0  r  1 3 0 N e  0   r  1 3 

1 1  3   r  1 1 1  r  2 
     
N e 3 0   r  1  N e 3 0   r 1 

This represents Clausius – Mossotti Equation.

6) Differentiate between dia and paramagnetic materials:

Ans:

(1) Paramagnetic materials have a small, positive susceptibility to magnetic fields.

Diamagnetic materials have a weak, negative susceptibility to magnetic fields.

(2) Paramagnetic materials are attracted by external magnetic fields whereas diamagnetic
materials are repelled.

(3) Paramagnetic materials have at least one unpaired electron in the system, but diamagnetic
materials have all their electrons paired.

Dr. Deepa Urs MV Page 5

(4) Paramagnetic properties are due to the presence of some unpaired electrons, and from the
realignment of the electron paths caused by the external magnetic field. Diamagnetic properties
arise from the realignment of the electron paths under the influence of an external magnetic field.

(5) The magnetic field created by paramagnetic materials are in the direction of the external
magnetic field whereas the magnetic field created by diamagnetic materials are opposing in
direction to the external magnetic field.

(6) Paramagnetism is a stronger magnetic behaviour exhibited only by selective materials,

whereas diamagnetism is a weak magnetic behaviour generally shown by all materials and easily
suppressed in the presence of stronger magnetic properties.

(7) Paramagnetic materials include magnesium, molybdenum, lithium, and tantalum. Most
elements in the periodic table, including copper, silver, and gold, are diamagnetic.

***

Dr. Deepa Urs MV Page 6

 3.3 Superconducting Materials
1.1 Temperature dependence of resistance in metals:
All metals are good conductors of electricity since they have loosely bound electrons (free) called
valence electrons. These free electrons can readily move under the influence of electric field.
When an atom loses an electron, the atom becomes positive ion core. Due to the thermal
excitation, the positive ions will be oscillating about their mean position, which is termed as
Lattice vibration. Resistance (R) offered by a metal to the flow of current is due to the scattering
of conduction electrons by lattice vibrations.

The temperature dependence of resistivity  [ = R

(A/l)] of a metal is shown in Figure 1. Electrical
resistivity (or resistance) of a metal decreases with
Resistivity  ( m)

the decrease in temperature of a metal and reaches

a minimum value at T = 0. As the temperature of
the metal is decreased, the lattice vibration also
decreases thereby decreasing the resistivity in the
metal. It can be observed from the figure that, the
resistivity has a minimum value at T=0 K, called
‘Residual resistivity’, which is due to the presence
o of impurities in the metal.
0 Temperature T (K)
Figure 1: Variation of resistivity of
a metal with temperature T

1.2 Superconductivity:
The resistance offered by certain materials to the flow of electric current abruptly drops to zero
below a threshold temperature. This phenomenon is called ‘Superconductivity’ and the
threshold temperature is called ‘Critical temperature, Tc’. The materials that exhibit
superconductivity and which are in the superconducting state are called ‘Superconductors’.
Superconductivity was discovered by Kamarlingh Onnes in the year 1911.

1.3 Temperature dependence of resistivity in superconducting materials:

Up to a particular temperature Tc, the critical temperature, resistance of the superconductor in the
non-superconducting state decreases with decrease in temperature as in the case of normal metal.
At Tc, the resistance abruptly drops to zero as shown in Figure 2. At critical temperature, the
normal state transforms into the superconducting state. Different superconducting materials have
different critical temperatures. For example, critical temperature of pure mercury is 4.2 K.

Dr. Deepa Urs MV Page 7

 Resistivity  (m)
Tc
0 Temperature T (K)

Figure 2: Dependence of resistivity of a

superconductor on temperature

1.4.1 Effect of magnetic field — Meissner effect:

Consider a superconductor in its normal state. Suppose the magnetic field is applied to it, then the
magnetic field lines pass through the material when the temperature is above critical temperature
Tc (Figure 3a). As the temperature of the material is cooled below Tc, all the magnetic field lines
are suddenly expelled out of the material (Figure 3b) for all temperatures T < Tc. The material
becomes a perfect diamagnet [Meissner and Ochensfeld (1933)].

Hext Hext
Cooling

(a) T > Tc (b) T  Tc

Figure 3(a): A superconductor at T >Tc Figure 3(b): The superconductor
held in a magnetic field. The magnetic expelling the field lines from its
flux penetrates the body in normal state. interior for T  Tc

“The expulsion of magnetic flux from the interior of the superconductor when it is cooled below
the critical temperature is called Meissner effect”. [Or “The expulsion of magnetic flux during
the transition from normal to the superconducting state is called Meissner effect”.] This effect is

Dr. Deepa Urs MV Page 8

reversible. When the temperature is raised above Tc, the flux suddenly starts penetrating the
specimen as a result of which the material returns to normal state.
The magnetic induction inside the specimen is given by
B = o ( H + M ) … Normal state
where H is the external applied field and M is the magnetization produced within the specimen.
At T < Tc, B = 0 and o ( H + M ) = 0 … Superconducting state
Or M =  H
Hence the susceptibility of the material,
M
  1 ….. Perfect diamagnetism
H
Thus, superconducting state is characterized by perfect diamagnetism. This conclusion can not be
derived from the simple definition of superconductivity as a state of zero resistivity. Two
mutually independent properties, viz. Zero resistivity ( = 0) and Perfect diamagnetism (B=0;
 = 1) are the essential properties that characterize the superconducting state.

1.4.2 Critical Field: The strength of the minimum magnetic field required to just
switch a material from superconducting state to normal state is called “Critical field”.

Temperature dependence of Critical field:

For a superconducting material in the
superconducting state, the critical
field will be higher when the
temperature is lower. If T is the
temperature of the superconducting
material (T < TC), HC the critical
field, and Ho the field required to turn
the superconductor to a normal
conductor at 0o K, then the relation
for critical field is given by,
 T2 
H C  H  1  2 
 TC 

1.5 Types of Superconductors:

Based on the magnetic behavior, superconductors are classified into two categories, viz. (a) Type
I superconductors and (b) Type II superconductors.

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1.5.1 Type I superconductors or Soft superconductors – Type I superconductors, also known
as soft superconductors, exhibit complete Meissner
effect. In this type of materials, the transition from
superconducting state to normal state in the
presence of magnetic field occurs sharply at the
critical value HC.
–M Normal The magnetic curve for type I superconductor is as
Super state shown in Figure 5. In the presence of an external
conducting magnetic field H < HC, the material in
state superconducting stage is a perfect diamagnet. As
Hc soon as the applied field H exceeds HC, the entire
H
material becomes normal by losing its diamagnetic
Figure 4: Variation of magnetic moment property completely and the magnetic flux
with magnetic field penetrates throughout the body. Since
superconductors are perfect diamagnet, it possesses
a negative magnetic moment (M). The maximum critical field for type I superconductor is of the
order of 0.1 Wb/m2.

Aluminum, Lead, Indium, Tin and Mercury are the examples for type I superconductors. The
critical field HC is relatively low for soft superconductors (0 – 1T). As such they are not of
much use for production of high magnetic fields.

1.5.2 Type II Superconductors Or Hard superconductors: Type II (Hard) superconductors

are characterized by 2 critical magnetic fields – HC1 (lower critical field) and HC2 (upper critical
field).

For applied field (H) below HC1, the material expels magnetic flux completely and behaves as a
perfect diamagnet, as shown in Figure 6. When H exceeds HC1, the flux begins to penetrate and
the penetration of flux increases until HC2 is reached. At HC2, the superconductivity vanishes and
the specimen returns to normal state.

Type II superconductors are inhomogeneous. When the applied field strength is between
HC1 and HC2, the material is in a mixed state called ‘Vortex state’, and in this state, the flux
penetration occurs through channelized parts of the body called filaments. In this state, though
there is no flux penetration, the material retains its zero resistance property and hence it is still a
superconductor in this magnetic field interval. The flux penetration occurs through small
channelized parts of the body, called filaments.

The most distinguishing characteristic of type II superconductors is that the value of

upper critical field is very high. Thus they are very useful in the buildup of devices which work
in high magnetic fields such as superconducting magnets. Transition metals and alloys consisting
of niobium, aluminum, silicon and vanadium exhibit type II superconductivity. Ceramic
superconductors also belong to this category.

Dr. Deepa Urs MV Page 10

 Normal state
Magnetization –M

No flux
penetration
Partial flux
penetration

Vertex
state
HC1 HC HC2
External field H
Figure 5: Variation of magnetization with external field
in Type II superconductors

A distinguishing feature of type II superconductors is that super currents arising in

an external magnetic field can flow not only over the surface of a conductor but also
in the bulk. They can carry larger currents when the magnetic field lies between HC1
and HC2 and hence are called hard superconductors. The upper critical field is
very high and is of the order of 30 Wb/m2.

1.6 BCS Theory:

A fundamental understanding of electronic structure of the superconductor was given in 1957 by
the American physicists, John Bardeen, Leon N. Cooper and Robert Schrieffer. The theory is
based on the purely quantum mechanical concept of ‘Cooper pairs’.

According to BCS theory, during the flow of current in the superconductor, when an electron
approaches a positive ion in the lattice, there is a coulomb attraction between the electron and the
lattice ion. This produces a distortion in the lattice. This interaction causes an increase in the
density of ions in the region of distortion. The higher density of ions in the distorted region
attracts, in turn, another electron. Thus, a free electron exerts a small attractive force on another
electron through phonons which are quanta of lattice vibrations. This process is called electron -
electron interaction via phonon field.

At lower temperature i.e., below the critical temperature, the attraction force reaches a
maximum value for any two electrons of equal and opposite spin and opposite momentum. This
force of attraction exceeds the force of repulsion between two electrons and thus a pair of free
electrons couple through a phonon, called cooper pair. Cooper pair is a bound pair of electrons
formed by the interaction between the electrons with opposite spin and momenta in a phonon
field.

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At normal temperatures, the attractive force is too small and pairing of electrons does not take
place. At lower temperatures (T < Tc), the attractive electron-electron interaction exceeds
coulomb repulsion. According to quantum mechanics, a wave function could be associated with a
cooper pair. As a result, the wave function of one cooper pair overlaps with that of other cooper
pairs. For a given cooper pair, the overlapping may extend over 10 6 other pairs and hence almost
the entire volume of the superconductor. Therefore the entire cooper pairs move as a single unit.
Thus, the superconducting state is an ordered state of electrons. Since the density of Cooper pairs
is quite high, even large currents require only a small velocity. As a result, the extremely rare
collision of Cooper pairs with the lattice combined with precise ordering leads to vanishing
resistivity. Therefore the conductivity becomes infinite.

(*Note: The idea that the electron lattice interaction plays a crucial role in superconductivity is
supported by the fact that, the best of the conductors such as gold, silver and copper do not
exhibit superconductivity. The reason attributed is that, the electrons in those materials move so
freely in the lattice that, the electron – lattice interaction is virtually absent. This rules out the
possibility of formation of cooper pairs and hence the corresponding superconductivity in the
material.)

1.7 Applications of Superconductors:

1.7.1 Superconducting magnets:
The electromagnets which use superconducting coils to produce magnetic field are called
‘Superconducting magnets’. Once a superconducting magnet is energized, the field remains
forever as there is no power loss.

Construction: A superconductor wire is made to lie

in the form of filament embedded in a copper matrix
Superconducting (Figure 7) and this is used in the construction of
filaments solenoid. The solenoid is immersed in a bath of
helium (Boiling point of He is 4.2 K). Large
currents of the order of several hundred amperes can
Copper matrix be made to flow through the solenoid to produce
high magnetic fields of the order of 15 T.
Figure 6: Cross sectional view of
Superconducting wire
The type II superconductors, which have high Tc and Hc values, are commonly used in
superconducting magnets. One of the widely used superconductors for superconducting magnetic
coils is niobium-titanium (Nb-Ti) alloy, which can be easily drawn into wires. The other
materials include niobium-tin (Nb3Sn), niobium-aluminum (Nb-Al), niobium-germanium (Nb-
Ge) and vanadium-gallium (Na3Ga).

Applications of Superconducting magnets:

Superconducting magnets are used in
 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) systems (to generate the images of the body cross-
sections)

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  Magnetically levitated vehicles
 Magneto-Hydro-Dynamic (MHD) power generation
 Marine propulsion
 Different fields of research work such as Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
spectrometer, etc.

1.7.2 Maglev (Magnetically levitated) vehicles:

A vehicle levitated on a track due to repulsion between magnetic field on the track and at the
bottom of the vehicle are called Magnetically levitated vehicles or Maglevs. The Magnetic
levitation is based on the Meissner effect exhibited by superconductors.

Carriage

Superconducting
magnet

Aluminium guide-way

Figure 7: Schematic representation of Maglev Vehicle

Maglev vehicles consist of superconducting magnets built into its base of the vehicle (train). The
vehicle floats on the aluminium guide-way (special type of track) by magnetic levitation. The
magnetic levitation is produced by enormous magnetic repulsion between superconducting
magnet in the base of the vehicle and electric currents in the aluminium guide-way. The currents
in the aluminium guide-way not only produces magnetic field to levitate the vehicle but also help
propelling the vehicle forward. As there does not exist mechanical friction (between the wheels
and the track), speeds up to 500 km/hr can be easily achieved. Maglevs are useful in
transportation with very low energy consumption.

***

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