TABLE OF CONTENTS

CERTIFICATION ........................................................................................................................................ iv
DEDICATION .............................................................................................................................................v
ACKNOWLEDGMENT ............................................................................................................................... vi
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................................... vii
BACKGROUND OF STUDENTS INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME ............................................. viii
OBJECTIVES OF SIWES ........................................................................................................................... viii
CHAPTER ONE .......................................................................................................................................... 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 About the Company ...................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Mission Statement..................................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Vision Statement ....................................................................................................................... 1
1.4 Our Services ............................................................................................................................... 1
1.5 CLINTON AND COMPANY NIGERIA LTD ORGANIZATION .......................................................... 2
CHAPTER TWO ......................................................................................................................................... 3
WELL CASING ....................................................................................................................................... 3
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 3
2.2 Types of Casing .............................................................................................................................. 4
2.3 Casing properties ........................................................................................................................... 7
2.3.1 Casing size .................................................................................................................................. 7
2.3.2 Casing Weight ............................................................................................................................. 7
2.3.3 Casing Grade............................................................................................................................... 8
CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................................... 9
OIL DRILLING PREPARATION................................................................................................................ 9
3.1 Site Preparation / License / Community Settlement .................................................................... 9
3.2 Cellar Pit ...................................................................................................................................... 10
3.3 DRILLING, DRILLING RIG AND COMPONENTS, CREW MEMBERS AND ........................................ 11
3.3.1 Drilling: A process of drilling a hole in the earth from which petroleum flows or is
pumped............................................................................................................................................. 11
3.3.2 Drilling Rig................................................................................................................................. 11
3.3.3 DRILLING RIG COMPONENTS.................................................................................................... 12
3.3.4 DRILLING CREW AND THEIR RESPONSIBILITIES ........................................................................ 15
CHAPTER FOUR ...................................................................................................................................... 16
WELLHEAD AND COMPLETION .......................................................................................................... 16
4.1 WELLHEADS ................................................................................................................................. 16

i
 4.2 Completion .................................................................................................................................. 19
CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................................................ 21
CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................................................... 21
References ............................................................................................................................................. 22

ii
LIST OF FIGURES PAGE

Fig 01 – CLINTON Organization 2

Fig 02 – Leveling uneven ground 3

Fig 03 – Drilling rig components 6

Fig 04 – Casing types and zones 15

Fig 05 – Wellhead and Xmas tree connection 19

iii
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that ALOWOLODU FIKAYO DORCAS of PETROLEUM ENGINEERING

Department with the Matric Number COT/6687/2019 compiled this report based on his

Students Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) carried out at CLINTON OIL FIELD

LIMITED

--------------------------------------- -----------------------------------
Alowolodu Fikayo Dorcas DATE
STUDENT

-------------------------------------- -----------------------------------
Engr. Dr. A.B. Edward DATE
SUPERVISOR

iv
 DEDICATION
In life three sets of people matters, first God Almighty, second parents and thirdly

friends. I dedicate this report to God Almighty for His unlimited favor, consistent love,

and for sparing my life throughout the period of my SIWES programme, secondly to

my darling parents for their undiminished support and love. To all my friends who

came through for me, I love you all.

v
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
First and foremost, my acknowledgement goes to God Almighty, for His overwhelming

love upon my life throughout my industrial training period. I appreciate my parents,

and siblings for their constant help and support. Many thanks go to the management

and staff of CLINTON OIL FIELD LIMITED, my effective and approachable supervisors.

vi
 ABSTRACT
Casing is a major structural component of a well. It is a tubular steel product used to

line the wellbore (maintain borehole stability), prevent contamination of water sands,

isolate water from producing formations, and control well pressures during drilling,

production, and workover operations. Casing provides locations for the installation of

blow out preventers, wellhead equipment, production packers, and production tubing.

Keywords: Drilling, casing, wellhead, workover, tubing, production.

vii
 BACKGROUND OF STUDENTS’ INDUSTRIAL WORK
EXPERIENCE SCHEME
The Students’ Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) was established in 1973 to

solve the problem of inadequate practical skills preparatory for employment industries

commence by graduate from tertiary institution in Nigeria.

Participation in SIWES has become a necessary pre-condition for the award of Diploma

and Degree certificates in specific disciplines in most institutions of learning in the

country, in accordance with the education policy of government. SIWES is operated by

the Industrial Training Fund (ITF), the coordinating agency (NUC, NCCE), employers

of labor and the institutions concerned (universities, polytechnics and college of

educations). Funded by the Federal Government of Nigeria.

OBJECTIVES OF SIWES
According to ITF (2003), the objectives of the scheme include the following:

❑ It provides students the opportunity to apply the theoretical principles taught in

school in real job situation. This leads to better understanding of the subject

matter.

❑ It affords students the opportunity to interact with a larger spectrum of people

in industrial setup, which is different from campus life. Hence, this helps

personality and maturity development.

viii
 CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 About the Company
CLINTON OIL FIELD LIMITED is an indigenous Nigeria service company established to
manage the integrity of oil and gas assets both in upstream and downstream sectors
of Nigeria economy. This we do by collaborating with our clients and relevant
stakeholders to achieving success in all. At CLINTON, we are fully committed to our
customers’ needs, as their satisfaction is our pride and value for our true existence in
the industry.
1.2 Mission Statement
To provide technical assurance to the oil and gas allied industries through efficient
collaboration, competence and application of cutting – edge tools and services.
1.3 Vision Statement
To be the best sort after industry accepted trade name for quality assurance and
acceptance.

1.4 Our Services

• Wellhead Installation
• Wellhead Maintenance
• Procurement, Sales and Servicing of Oilfield Equipments
• Heavy Duty Equipment Hiring
• QA/QC
• Instrument Installation Services (Flow control system)
• Drilling Support Services
• Skills Acquisition Training and certification
• Project Management
• Consultancy Services.

1
 1.5 CLINTON OIL FIELD LIMITED ORGANIZATION

Managing Director

Project Planning Engineer

Quality Manager Operation Manager HSE Manager Finance Manager

Workshop & Field Supervisor Workshop & Field Engineers I.T & Administrative Officer

Workshop & Field Technician Artisans & Craft Men

Fig 01 – CLINTON Organization

2
 CHAPTER TWO
WELL CASING

2.1 Introduction
Oil casing is the pipe wall, used to support the oil and gas, to ensure normal operation
of the post-completion wells at the drilling process. Design of casing string calls for
knowledge of the operating conditions imposed on the casing as well as the concepts
related to pipe properties. Casing serves numerous purposes in oil and gas wells. Safe
and economical sizing of casing is therefore an important task in oil and gas well
design.
Casing situation requires that the formation pressure at various sections of the well
should be determined. Casing prevents formation from interfering into the borehole
activities. The first step towards the casing design procedure is the initial well data.
Therefore, incorrect initial data could cause incorrect casing design.

If casings are not sized correctly, then such casings are prone to failure at their early
stage of operation. Tensile, compressive, bending, tensional stress jointly affect on the
tube, which makes the casing itself, need the higher quality requirements. Casing
wears in the oil and gas industry is recorded on a world basis. Rotation of drill-pipe
during the drilling process creates significant contact forces that result in the reduction
of casing wall thickness. Thickness reduction of the casing wall weakens the burst and
collapse strength of casing. This is one of the causes of failure in casing even before
oil and gas production. Casing can also fail by bursting. This occurs when the applied
burst stress on the casing during the operational conditions of the well exceeds the
casing burst strength.
The burst stress tends to exert force on the inside walls of the casing. Casing can also
fail by collapse. The collapse of casing and tubing may lead to the loss of a well.
Collapse stress on casing act on the outer walls of the casing and increases with the
depth of the casing. Collapse is a complex phenomenon with many factors and
parameters that influence its effect. The collapse phenomenon is commonly attributed
to suspected quality problems in the pipe. However, studies show there are a set of
causative factors, such as: wear on casing, wear due to buckling, increased external

3
pressure due to temperature, improper depressurization, geostatic loads (overburden)
due to plastic formations and tectonic activity. Because of the various modes of failure
of the oil and gas well casing, it therefore becomes necessary to design casing
sufficiently with recommended factors of safety. The design standards recommend
various factors of safety for the design of casing against different modes of failure.
There are different types of casing. Casing, according to usage, can be divided into:
catheter, surface casing, intermediate casing and production casing

2.2 Types of Casing

❑ Foundation casing

The main purpose of this first string of pipe is to protect unconsolidated shallow
formations from erosion by drilling fluids.
Additional functions of the first casing string include:
❑ Allow for installation of a full mud circulation system, when formations are
sufficiently stable.
❑ Guides the drill string and subsequent casing into the hole.
❑ Provide centralization for the inner casing strings, which limits potential
buckling of subsequent casing strings.
❑ Minimize shallow lost returns.
❑ Provides a mount in onshore applications for a diverter system that would be
used in the event of an unexpected shallow influx.
Conductor casings can be driven or jetted to depth or alternatively, run into a predrilled
or jetted hole and cemented.

This is run from surface to some shallow depth to protect near surface unconsolidated
formation. Sizes from 18 – 5/8” to 20”.

❑ Surface Casing

Surface casing is installed to:

❑ Prevent poorly consolidated shallow formations from sloughing into the hole;
❑ enhances full mud circulation;
❑ Protect fresh water sands from contamination by drilling mud;
❑ Provide protection against hydrocarbons found at shallow depths;

4
 ❑ Provide initial support for the blowout preventers;
❑ Provide kick resistance for deeper drilling;
The surface casing string is typically cemented to the surface or seabed. it is usually
the first casing on which blowout preventers are installed. The amount of protection
provided against internal pressure will only be as effective as the formation strength
at the casing shoe.

❑ Intermediate casing
Intermediate casing is used to ensure there is adequate blowout protection for deeper
drilling and to isolate formations that could cause drilling problems. An intermediate
casing string is nearly always set in the transition zone associated with the onset of
significant overpressures. If the well could encounter severe lost circulation zone(s),
intermediate casing would normally be
set in a competent formation below the loss zone. Intermediate casing can also be
used to case off any known hydrocarbon-bearing intervals as a contingency against
the possibility of encountering lost circulation, with attendant well control problems.
An intermediate string may also be set simply to reduce the overall cost of drilling and
completing the well by isolating intervals that have caused mechanical problems in the
past. Intermediate casing may be
required to isolate:
❑ Swelling shale that can result in tight hole and key seats;
❑ Brittle caving shale or weak zones prone to washout and creation of persistent
on bottom fill;
❑ Salt intervals;
❑ Chemically active formations that can upset mud chemistry
❑ Over-pressured permeable formations;
❑ Hole sections that are used to deviate the wellbore;
❑ High permeability sand(s);
❑ Partly-depleted reservoirs that could cause differential sticking.
A good well designer should plan to combine as many of these objectives as possible
when selecting a single casing point. A liner may be used instead of a full intermediate
casing string and difficult wells may actually contain several intermediate casings
and/or liners.

5
 ❑ Production casing
Production casing is the conduit through which the well will be completed, produced
and controlled throughout its life. On exploration wells, this life may amount to only a
very short testing period, but on most development wells it will span many years,
during which multiple repairs and recompletions might be performed. Production
casing should be designed to retain its integrity throughout its life. In most cases,
production casing must provide full pressure redu
dancy to the tubing, isolate the productive intervals facilitate proper reservoir
maintenance and/or prevent the influx of undesired fluids.
The size of the production casing is selected to accommodate the optimum method of
completion and production, along with:
❑ Well flow potential, i.e., tubing size;
❑ Possibility of a multiple tubing string completion;
❑ Space required for down hole equipment, such as safety valves, artificial lift
equipment, etc.;
❑ Potential well servicing and recompletion requirements;
❑ Adequate annular clearances to permit circulation at reasonable rates and
pressures.
It is also possible that the production casing itself could be used as production tubing
to maximize well deliverability (casing flow), to minimize the pressure losses during
fracture stimulations, for continuous or batch chemical injection or for lift gas.

6
Fig 04 – Casing types and zones
2.3 Casing properties
Once the casing size and setting depth are selected, the loads which are exerted on
the casing string will be calculated. According to these loads the casing properties are
selected. Casing is classified in terms of outer diameter or size, weight, grade.

2.3.1 Casing size

The size of the casing or also called the outer diameter of the casing joint varies from
4.5'' to 36''. The string which has less than 4.5'' is called the tubing rather than casing.

2.3.2 Casing Weight

The casing joint is characterized by the casing weight which is given as weight per
foot. The API has designed and limited the internal diameter of a casing joint, but this
diameter can vary slightly when manufacturing the joint of casing. A minimum
guaranteed internal diameter is called drift diameter which is important when planning
for further operations (ex: the drilling bit which will be run to drill the next section has
to be less than the drift diameter).

7
2.3.3 Casing Grade
During casing manufacturing process; a variety of treatment processes can be
performed; and according to the process which is applied on the steel, the joint of
casing take its physical properties. The API has classified the casing in '' grades ". Each
grade is represented by a letter and a number. The letter is for the chemical
composition and the number is for the minimum yield strength.

Casing grades are:

❖ H – 40, J – 55, K – 55, N – 80

❖ M – 65, L – 80, C – 90, C – 95, T – 95
❖ P – 110
❖ Q - 125

8
 CHAPTER THREE

OIL DRILLING PREPARATION

3.1 Site Preparation / License / Community Settlement

Scientist surveys the area to determine its boundaries and conduct environmental
impact studies if necessary. The Oil Company applies lease agreements (OML), titles,
and right of way access before drilling the land. For off-shore sites, legal jurisdiction
must be determined.
After the legal issues are settled, the crew goes about preparing the land:
1. The land must be cleared and leveled, and access roads may be built.
2. Because water is used in drilling, there must be a source of water nearby. If
there is no natural source, the crew drills water well.
3. The crew digs a reserve pit, which is used to dispose of rock cuttings and drilling
mud during the drilling process, and lines it with plastic to protect the
environment. If the site is an ecologically sensitive area, such as a marsh or
wilderness, then the cuttings and mud must be disposed of offsite -- trucked
away instead of placed in a pit.

Fig 02 – Leveling uneven ground

9
3.2 Cellar Pit
A rectangular pit called a cellar (usually 3 – 15ft) is dug around the location of the
actual drilling hole. The cellar provides a work space around the hole for the workers
and drilling accessories. It can also serve as containment in case of a spill. The crew
then begins drilling the main hole, often with a small drill truck rather than the main
rig. The first part of the hole is larger and shallower than the main portion, and is lined
with a large-diameter conductor pipe. The crew digs additional holes off to the side to
temporarily store equipment -- when these holes are finished, the rig equipment can
be brought in and set up.
After the well and access road have been sited and constructed, the operator moves
in a rig and starts the drilling phase of operation.
Prior to the commencement of drilling operation, a person who has been issued a
drilling permit must notify by certified mail any local government and any land owner
whose surface right will be affected by drilling operations. This notification is required
to those whose property may be potentially affected by drilling activity and so that
local jurisdictions are aware of activity taking place in their areas. This notification
should be required at least five business days prior to the beginning of drilling
operations

10
3.3 DRILLING, DRILLING RIG AND COMPONENTS, CREW MEMBERS AND
RESPONSIBILITIES

3.3.1 Drilling: A process of drilling a hole in the earth from which

petroleum flows or is pumped.
3.3.2 Drilling Rig
A drilling rig is an integrated system that drills wells, such as oil or water wells, in the
earth's subsurface.
Oil and natural gas drilling rigs are used not only to identify geologic reservoirs but
also to create holes that allow the extraction of oil or natural gas from those reservoirs.
Primarily in onshore oil and gas fields once a well has been drilled, the drilling rig will
be moved off of the well and a service rig (a smaller rig) that is purpose-built for
completions will be moved on to the well to get the well on line. This frees up the
drilling rig to drill another hole and streamlines the operation as well as allowing for
specialization of certain services, i.e. completions vs. drilling.

11
3.3.3 DRILLING RIG COMPONENTS
1. Mud tank
2. Shale Shakers
3. Suction line (mud
pump)
4. Mud pump
5. Motor or power source
6. Hose
7. Draw – works
8. Standpipe
9. Kelly hose
10. Goose – neck
11. Travelling blocks
12. Drill line
13. Crown block
14. Derrick
15. Racking board (monkey
board)
16. Stand (drill pipe)
17. Setback (Floor)
18. Swivel
19. Kelly drive
20. Rotary table
21. Drill floor
22. Bell nipple Fig 03 - Drilling rig components
23. Blow out preventer –
annular type
24. BOP pipe ram & blind
ram
25. Drill string
26. Drill bit
27. Casing head or wellhead
28.1.Flow
Mudlinetank: is often called mud pits and stores drilling fluid until it is required

down the wellbore.

2. Shale Shakers: separates drill cuttings from the drilling fluid before it is
pumped back down the wellbore

12
3. Suction line: is an intake line for the mud pump to draw drilling fluid from the
mud tanks.
4. Mud pump: s a reciprocal type of pump used to circulate drilling fluid through
the system
5. Motor or power source
6. Vibrating Hose: is a flexible, high pressure hose (similar to the kelly hose)
that connects the mud pump to the stand pipe. It is called the vibrating hose
because it tends to vibrate and shake (sometimes violently) due to its close
proximity to the mud pumps.
7. Draw – works: is the mechanical section that contains the spool, whose main
function is to reel in/out the drill line to raise/lower the traveling block.
8. Standpipe: is a thick metal tubing, situated vertically along the derrick, that
facilitates the flow of drilling fluid and has attached to it and supports one end
of the Kelly hose
9. Kelly hose: is a flexible, high pressure hose that connects the standpipe to the
Kelly (or more specifically to the gooseneck on the swivel above the Kelly) and
allows free vertical movement of the Kelly, while facilitating the flow of the
drilling fluid through the system and down the drill string.
10. Goose – neck: is a thick metal elbow connected to the swivel and standpipe
that supports the weight of and provides a downward angle for the kelly hose
to hang from.
11. Travelling blocks: is the moving end of the block and tackle. Together, they
give a significant mechanical advantage for lifting.
12. Drill line: is thick, stranded metal cable threaded through the two blocks
(traveling and crown) to raise and lower the drill string.
13. Crown block: is the stationary end of the block and tackle
14. Derrick: is the support structure for the equipment used to lower and raise the
drill string into and out of the wellbore. This consists of the sub-structure
(structure below the drill floor level) and the mast.
15. Racking board (monkey board): is the catwalk along the side of the derrick
(usually about 35 or 40 feet above the "floor"). The monkey board is where the
derrick man works while "tripping" pipe.
16. Stand (drill pipe): is a joint of hollow tubing used to connect the surface
equipment to the bottom hole assembly (BHA) and acts as a conduit for the

13
 drilling fluid. In the diagram, these are stands of drill pipe which are 2 or 3 joints
of drill pipe connected and stood in the derrick vertically, usually to save time
while tripping pipe.
17. Setback (Floor): is a part of the drill floor (#21) where the stands of drill pipe
are stood upright. It is typically made of a metal frame structure with large
wooden beams situated within it. The wood helps to protect the end of the drill
pipe.
18. Swivel: is the top end of the Kelly that allows the rotation of the drill string
without twisting the block.
19. Kelly drive: is square, hexagonal or octagonal shaped tubing that is inserted
through and is an integral part of the rotary table that moves freely vertically
while the rotary table turns it.
20. Rotary table: rotates, along with its constituent parts, the Kelly and Kelly
bushing, the drill string and the attached tools and bit
21. Drill floor: s the area on the rig where the tools are located to make the
connections of the drill pipe, bottom hole assembly, tools and bit. It is
considered the main area where work is performed.
22. Bell nipple: is a section of large diameter pipe fitted to the top of the blowout
preventers that the flow line attaches to via a side outlet, to allow the drilling
mud to flow back to the mud tanks.
23. Blow out preventer – annular type: are devices installed at the wellhead to
prevent fluids and gases from unintentionally escaping from the wellbore. #23
is the annular (often referred to as Hydril named after a manufacturer), and
#24 is the pipe rams and blind rams.
24. BOP pipe ram & blind ram
25. Drill string: is an assembled collection of drill pipe, heavy weight drill pipe, drill
collars and any of a whole assortment of tools, connected and run into the
wellbore to facilitate the drilling of a well. The collection is referred to singularly
as the drill string.
26. Drill bit: is a device attached to the end of the drill string that breaks apart the
rock being drilled. It contains jets through which the drilling fluid exits.
27. Casing head or wellhead: is a large metal flange welded or screwed onto the
top of the conductor pipe (also known as drive-pipe) or the casing and is used

14
 to bolt the surface equipment such as the blowout preventers (for well drilling)
or the Christmas tree (oil well) (for well production).
28. Flow line: s large diameter pipe that is attached to the bell nipple and extends
to the shale shakers to facilitate the flow of drilling fluid back to the mud tanks.

3.3.4 DRILLING CREW AND THEIR RESPONSIBILITIES

❑ Tool pusher:
The Tool pusher sometimes called and doubles as the rig manager. He is the man in
charge of the rig with all its components.

❑ The driller
The driller is the man that handles the break, he is directly in charge of drilling, by
operating the drilling machinery to make hole.
❑ The derrick man / Assistant Driller
The derrick man is the second in command to the driller and sometimes called the
assistant driller on some rig. He works on monkey board, a small platform located up
in the derrick at elevation equal to the upper end of a stand of drill pipe.
❑ Roughneck / Floorman
The floorman or roughneck is also called the rotary helper. He is responsible for
handling the lower end of the drill pipe by using special rig equipment when the drill
is being tripped in or out of hole. A full drill crew can be made up of two to four
floormen.
❑ The motorman / Rig Mechanic
He keeps the engines and other parts of the rig in working order and functions as the
lead tong during trips.
❑ Roustabout
The Roustabout usually work hand with the crane operator, by helping to attach the
lifting part of the crane to the load and also direct where the load will be put. The load
that he handles includes the equipment and supplies that are constantly being supplied
to the rig from the base.

15
 CHAPTER FOUR
WELLHEAD AND COMPLETION
4.1 WELLHEADS
The wellhead sits on top of the actual oil or gas well leading down to the reservoir. A
wellhead may also be an injection well, used to inject water or gas back into the
reservoir to maintain pressure and levels to maximize production.

The wellhead has equipment mounted at the opening of the well to regulate and
monitor the extraction of hydrocarbons from the underground formation. This also
prevents oil or natural gas leaking out of the well, and prevents blow-outs due to high
pressure formations. Formations that are under high pressure typically require
wellheads that can withstand a great deal of upward pressure from the escaping gases
and liquids. These must be able to withstand pressures of up to 140 MPa (1,400 Bar).
The wellhead consists of three components: the casing head, the tubing head, and the
“Christmas tree.”

A typical Christmas tree, composed of a master gate valve, a pressure gauge, a wing
valve, a swab valve and a choke is shown above. The Christmas tree may also have a
number of check valves. The functions of these devices are explained below.

❑ At the bottom we find the casing head and casing hangers. The casing is
screwed, bolted or welded to the hanger. Several valves and plugs are normally
fitted to give access to the casing. This permits the casing to be opened, closed,
bled down, and in some cases, allow the flowing well to be produced through
the casing as well as the tubing. The valve can be used to determine leaks in
casing, tubing or the packer, and is also used for lift gas injection into the casing.
❑ The tubing hanger (also called a donut): is used to position the tubing
correctly in the well. Sealing also allows Christmas tree removal with pressure
in the casing.
❑ Master gate valve: The master gate valve is a high quality valve. It provides
full opening, which means that it opens to the same inside diameter as the
tubing so that specialized tools may be run through it. It must be capable of
holding the full pressure of the well safely for all anticipated purposes. This
valve is usually left fully open and is not used to control flow.

16
❑ Pressure gauge: The minimum instrumentation is a pressure gauge placed
above the master gate valve before the wing valve. In addition, other
instruments such as a temperature gauge are normally fitted.
❑ Wing valve: The wing valve can be a gate or ball valve. When shutting in the
well, the wing gate or valve is normally used so that the tubing pressure can be
easily read.
❑ Swab valve: The swab valve is used to gain access to the well for wireline
operations, intervention and other workover procedures (see below). On top of
it is a tree adapter and cap that mates with a range of equipment.
❑ Variable flow choke valve: The variable flow choke valve is typically a large
needle valve. Its calibrated opening is adjustable in 1/64 inch increments (called
beans). High-quality steel is used in order to withstand the high-speed flow of
abrasive materials that pass through the choke, usually over many years, with
little damage except to the dart or seat. If a variable choke is not required, a
less expensive positive choke is normally installed on smaller wells. This has a
built-in restriction that limits flow when the wing valve is fully open.
❑ Vertical tree: Christmas trees can also be horizontal where the master, wing
and choke are on a horizontal axis. This reduces the height and may allow easier
intervention. Horizontal trees are especially used on subsea wells

17
Fig 05 – Wellhead and Xmas tree connection

18
4.2 Completion
Well completion commonly refers to the process of finishing a well so that it is ready
to produce oil or natural gas. In essence, completion consists of deciding on the
characteristics of the intake portion of the well in the targeted hydrocarbon formation.
There are a number of types of completions, including:

❑ Open hole completions are the most basic type and are only used in very
competent formations that are unlikely to cave in. An open hole completion
consists of simply running the casing directly down into the formation, leaving
the end of the piping open without any other protective filter.

❑ Conventional perforated completions consist of production casing run

through the formation. The sides of this casing are perforated, with tiny holes
along the sides facing the formation, which allows hydrocarbons to flow into the
well hole while still providing a suitable amount of support and protection for
the well hole. In the past, “bullet perforators” were used. These were essentially
small guns lowered into the well that sent off small bullets to penetrate the
casing and cement. Today, “jet perforating” is preferred. This consists of small,
electrically-fired charges that are lowered into the well. When ignited, these
charges poke tiny holes through to the formation, in the same manner as bullet
perforating.

❑ Sand exclusion completions are designed for production in an area that

contains a large amount of loose sand. These completions are designed to allow
for the flow of natural gas and oil into the well, while preventing sand from
entering. The most common methods of keeping sand out of the well hole are
screening or filtering systems. Both of these types of sand barriers can be used
in open hole and perforated completions.

❑ Permanent completions are those in which the completion and wellhead are
assembled and installed only once. Installing the casing, cementing, perforating
and other completion work is done with small-diameter tools to ensure the

19
 permanent nature of the completion. Completing a well in this manner can lead
to significant cost savings compared to other types.

❑ Multiple zone completion is the practice of completing a well such that

hydrocarbons from two or more formations may be produced simultaneously,
without mixing with each other. For example, a well may be drilled that passes
through a number of formations on its way deeper underground, or it may be
more desirable in a horizontal well to add multiple completions to drain the
formation most effectively. When it is necessary to separate different
completions, hard rubber “packing” instruments are used to maintain
separation.

❑ Drainhole completions are a form of horizontal or slanted drilling. This type

of completion consists of drilling out horizontally into the formation from a
vertical well, essentially providing a drain for the hydrocarbons to run down into
the well. These completions are more commonly associated with oil wells than
with natural gas wells.

20
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION
I want to sincerely appreciate the dream that gave birth to this SIWES programme. It
was indeed a blessing in all angles. I can better connect with most of the concepts I
have come across in the course of my studies so far.

21
 References
Anderson, E. E.; Cooper, G. A.; Maurer, W. C. and Westcott, P. A. (1991). An analysis
of

relative costs in drilling deep wells: SPE 22574, Proceedings of the

Society of Petroleum Engineers 66th Annual Technical Conference and

Exhibition, Dallas, Tex., Richardson, Tex., SPE, p.355-364.

Annis, R.M., Smith, V.M., 1996. Drilling fluids technology. Revised edition Exxon Company,

USA.

API 13A (1993). Specification for drilling fluid materials, American Petroleum
Institute,

Washington D.C., 15th ed., May

API (2003). Recommended Practice for Field Testing of water-based Drilling Fluids
13B-

1, Third Edition, December, ANSI/API 13B-1/ISO 10414-1

Bland, R. G., Mullen, G. A., Gonzalez, Y. N., Harvey, F. E., Pless, M.L., 2006, HPHT
Drilling

Fluid Challenges. Society of Petroleum Engineers. Doi: 10.2118/103731-

MS.

Chad Augustine, J. W. (2006). A comparison of Geothermal with Oil and Gas well

Drilling Costs. California: Thirty-First Workshop.

22
Gabolde, G. and Nguyen, J.P., 2014: Drilling data handbook (9th edition). Editions

Technip, Paris, 526pp.

Jonathon Green (1 January 1987). Dictionary of Jargon. Routledge. pp. 176–.

ISBN 978-0-7100- 9919-8. Retrieved 12 July 2013.

Mitchell, R.F.: “Casing Design,” in Drilling Engineering, ed. R. F. Mitchell, vol. 2 of

Petroleum Engineering Handbook, ed. L. W. Lake. (USA: Society of

Petroleum Engineers, 2006). 287-342.

Medhi S, Chowdhury S, Gupta DK, Mehrota U (2019) Nanotechnology: An Emerging

Drilling Fluid Solution. Oil Gas Res 5: Doi: 10.4172/2472 –

0518.1000163

Whittaker, A., ed., 1985, Field geologists training guide: Boston, MA, IHRDC, 291 p.

23