Introduction to Critical Thinking 1

INTRODUCTION TO CRITICAL
THINKING

WHAT IS THINKING?
Thinking is a purposeful, organized cognitive process that we use to make sense of our
world.
Thinking is beyond the level of repeating or memorizing information. Thinking is
processing experiences by editing or rearranging them (Matthew Lipman)
Thinking is bringing intellectual faculties into play. It requires one to ponder, reflect or
weigh a matter mentally (Webster’s Dictionary)
Thinking is a complex act comprising knowledge, attitudes and skills that allow the
individual to shape his/her environment more effectively than intuition alone.

WHAT IS CRITICAL THINKING?

Often when we use the word critical we mean “negative and fault-finding”. This is the
sense we have in mind, for example, when we complain about a parent or a friend who we think
unfairly critical of what we do or say. Nevertheless, critical also means, “involving or exercising
skilled judgment or observation”. In this sense critical thinking means thinking clearly and
intelligently. It is the thinking that is clear, accurate, knowledgeable, reflective, and fair in
deciding what to believe or do.
More precisely, “Critical thinking consists of a mental process of analyzing or evaluating
information, particularly statements or propositions that people have offered as true. It forms a
process of reflecting upon the meaning of statements, examining the offered evidence and
reasoning, and forming judgments about the facts.” (Wikipedia)
“Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully
conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from,
or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to
belief and action. “
Critical Thinking is the general term given to a wide range of cognitive and intellectual
skills needed to:
 Effectively identify, analyze, and evaluate arguments and truth claims.
 Discover and overcome personal prejudices and biases.
 Formulate and present convincing reasons in support of conclusions.
 Make reasonable, intelligent decisions about what to believe and what to do.
 Introduction to Critical Thinking 2

CRITICAL THINKING STANDARDS

The most significant critical (intellectual) thinking standards:
 Clarity
 Accuracy
 Precision
 Relevance
 Depth
 Breadth
 Logic
 Fairness

Clarity
Before we can effectively evaluate a person’s argument or claim, we need to understand clearly
what he or she is saying. Unfortunately, that can be difficult because people often fail to express
themselves clearly. Sometimes this lack of clarity is due to laziness, carelessness, or a lack of
skill. At other times it results from a misguided effort to appear clever, learned, or profound.
Critical thinker not only strives for clarity of language but also seek maximum clarity of thought.
As self-help books constantly remind us, to achieve our personal goals in life we need a clear
conception of our goals and priorities, a realistic grasp of our abilities, and a clear understanding
of the problems and opportunities we face. Such self-understanding can be achieved only if we
value and pursue clarity of thought.

Precision
Everyone recognizes the importance of precision in specialized fields such as medicine,
mathematics, architecture, and engineering. Critical thinkers also understand the importance of
precise thinking in daily life. They understand that to cut through the confusions and
uncertainties that surround many everyday problems and issues, it is often necessary to insist on
precise answers to precise questions: What exactly is the problem we’re facing? What exactly are
the alternatives? What exactly are the advantages and disadvantages of each alternative? Only
when we habitually seek such precision are we truly critical thinkers.
 Introduction to Critical Thinking 3

Accuracy
There is a well-known saying about computers. “Garbage in, garbage out.” Simply put, this
means that if you put bad information into a computer, bad information is exactly what you will
get out of it. Much the same is true of human thinking and reasoning. No matter how brilliant
you may be, you’re almost guaranteed to make bad decisions if your decisions are based on false
information.

Relevance
Anyone who has every sat through a boring school assembly or watched a mudslinging political
debate can appreciate the importance of staying focused on relevant ideas and information. A
favorite debater’s trick is to try to distract an audience’s attention by raising an irrelevant issue.

Consistency
It is easy to see why consistency is essential to critical thinking. Logic tells us that if a person
holds inconsistent beliefs, at least one of those beliefs must be false. Critical thinkers love truth
and detest falsehood. For that reason critical thinkers are constantly on the lookout fro
inconsistencies, both in their own thinking and in the arguments and assertions of others.
There are tow kinds of inconsistency that should be avoided.
Logical Consistency:
Logical inconsistency, which involves saying or believing inconsistent things (i.e., things
that cannot both or all be true) about a particular matter.

Practical Inconsistency:
Practical inconsistency, which involves saying one thing and doing another.
Sometimes people are fully aware that their words conflict with their deeds. The politician who
cynically breaks her campaign promises once she takes office, the TV evangelist caught in an
extramarital affair, the drug counselor arrested for peddling drugs. Such people are hypocrites
pure and simple. From a critical thinking point of view, such examples are not especially
interesting. As a rule, they involve failures of character to a greater degree tan they do failures of
critical reasoning.
Critical thinking helps us become aware of such unconscious practical inconsistencies, enabling
us to deal with them on a conscious and rational basis.
It is also common, of course, for people to unknowingly hold inconsistent beliefs about a
particular subject. In fact, as Socrates pointer out long ago, such unconscious logical
inconsistency is far more common than most people suspect. As we shall se, for example, many
today claim that morality is “relative,” while holding a variety of views that imply that it is not
relative. Critical thinking helps us recognized such logical inconsistencies or, still better, avoid
them altogether.

Logical Correctness
To think logically is to reason correctly that is, to draw well-founded conclusions from the
beliefs we hold. To think critically we need accurate and well supported beliefs. But, just as
important, we need to be able to reason from those beliefs to conclusions that logically follow
from them. Unfortunately,, illogical thinking is all too common in human affairs.

Completeness
In most contexts, we rightly prefer deep and complete thinking to shallow and superficial
thinking. Thus, we justly condemn slipshod criminal investigations, hasty jury deliberations,
superficial news stories, and snap medical diagnoses. Of course, there are times when it is
impossible or inappropriate to discuss an issue in depth; no one would expect, for example, a
through and wide-ranging discussion of the ethics of human genetic research in a short
 Introduction to Critical Thinking 4

newspaper editorial. Generally speaking, however, thinking is better when it is deep rather than
shallow, thorough rather than superficial.

Fairness
Finally, critical thinking demands that our thinking be fair that is, open-minded, impartial, and
free of distorting biases and preconceptions. That can be very difficult to achieve. Even the most
superficial acquaintance with history and the social sciences tells us tat people are often strongly
disposed to resist unfamiliar ideas, to prejudge issues, to stereotype outsiders, and to identity
truth with their own self-interest or the interest of their nation or group. It is probably unrealistic
to suppose that our thinking could ever be completely free of biases and preconceptions; to some
extent we all perceive reality in ways that are powerfully shaped by our individual’s life
experiences and cultural backgrounds. But as difficult as it my be to achieve basic fair-
mindedness is clearly an essential attribute of a critical thinker.

THE BENEFITS OF CRITICAL THINKING

In the previous section, we touched briefly on some of the standards governing critical reasoning
(clarity, precision, and so forth). Now let’s consider more specifically what you can expect to
gain from a course in critical thinking.

Critical Thinking in Classroom

When they first enter college, students are sometimes surprised to discover that their professors
seem less interested in how they got their beliefs than then they are in whether those beliefs can
withstand critical scrutiny. In college the focus is on higher-order thinking: the active, intelligent
evaluation of ideas and information. For this reason critical thinking plays a vital role throughout
the college curriculum.
In a critical thinking course, students learn a variety of skills that can greatly improve
their classroom performance. These skills include:
 Understanding the arguments and beliefs of others
 Critically evaluating those arguments and beliefs
 Developing and defending one’s own well-supported arguments and beliefs
Let’s look briefly at each of these there skills.
To succeed in college, you must, of course, be able to understand the material you are
studying. A course in critical thinking cannot make inherently difficult material easy to grasp,
but critical thinking does teach a variety of skills that, with practice, can significantly improve
you ability to understand the arguments and issues discussed in our college textbooks and
classes.
In addition, critical thinking can help you critically evaluate what you are learning in
class. During your college career, your instructors will often ask you to discuss “critical” some
argument or idea introduced in class. Critical thinking teaches a wide range of strategies and
skills that can greatly improve your ability to engage in such critical evaluations.
You will also be asked to develop you own arguments on particular topics or issues. In an
American Government class, for example, you might be asked to write a paper addressing the
issue of rater Congress has gone too far in restricting presidential war powers. To write such
paper successfully, you must do more than simply find and assess relevant arguments and
information. You must also be able to marshal arguments and evidence in a way that
convincingly supports your view. In our experience relatively few first year college students are
able to do that very well. The systematic training provided in a course in critical thinking can
result in marked improvement in that skill as well.

Critical Thinking in the Workplace

Surveys indicate that fewer than half of today’s college graduates can expect to be working in
their major field of study within five years of graduation. This statistic speaks volumes about
 Introduction to Critical Thinking 5

changing workplace realities. Increasingly, employers are looking not for employees with highly
specialized career skills, since such skills can usually best be learned on , but for workers with
good thinking and communication skills quick learners who can solve problems, , think
creatively, gather and analyze information, draw appropriate conclusions from data, and
communication their ideas clearly and effectively. These are exactly the kinds of generalized
thinking and problem solving skills that accurse in critical thinking aims to improve.

Critical Thinking in Life

Critical thinking is valuable in many contexts outside the classroom and the workplace. Let’s
look briefly at three ways in which this is the case.
First, critical thinking can help us avoid making foolish h personal decisions. All of us
have at one time or another made decisions about consumer, purchases, relationships, personal
behavior, and the like that we later realized were seriously misguided or irrational. Critical
thinking can help us avoid such mistakes by teaching us to think about important life decisions
more carefully, clearly, and logically.
Second, critical thinking plays a vital role in promoting democratic processes. Despite
what cynics might say, in a democracy it really is“we the people” who have the ultimate say over
who governs and for what purposes. It is important, therefore, that citizens’ decisions be as
informed and as deliberate as possible. Many of today’s most serious societal problems-
environmental destruction, nuclear proliferation, religious and ethnic intolerance, decaying inner
cities, racial prejudice, declining educational standard, to mention just a few –have largely been
caused by poor critical thinking . And as Albert Einstein once remarked, “The significant
problems we face cannot be solved at the level of thinking we were at when we created then.”
Finally, critical thinking is worth studying for its own sake, simply for the personal
enrichment it can bring to our lives. One of the most basic truths of the human condition is that
most people, most of the time, believe what they are told. Throughout most of recorded history,
people accepted without question that the earth was the center of the universe, that demons cause
disease that slavery was just, and that women are inferior to men. Critical thinking, honestly and
courageously pursued, can help free us from the unexamined assumptions and biases of our
upbringing and our society. It lets us step back from the prevailing customs and ideologies of our
culture and ask, “This is what I’ve been taught, but is it true?
In short, critical thinking allows us to lead self-directed, “examined” lives. Such personal
liberation is, as the word itself implies, the ultimate goal of a liberal arts education. Whatever
other benefits it brings, liberal education can have no greater reward.

BARRIERS TO CRITICAL THINKING

The preceding section raises an obvious question: if Critical thinking is so important, why is it
that uncritical thinking is so common? Why is it that so many people including many highly
educated and intelligent people find critical thinking so difficult?
The reasons, as you might expect, are quite complex. Here is a list of some of the most
common barriers to critical thinking:
 Lack of relevant background information
 Poor reading skills
 Bias
 Prejudice
 Superstition
 Egocentrism (self-centered thinking)
 Sociocentrism (group-centered thinking)
 Peer pressure
 Conformism
 Provincialism
 Narrow-mindedness
 Close-mindedness
 Distrust in reason
 Introduction to Critical Thinking 6

 Relativistic thinking
 Stereotyping
 Unwarranted assumptions
 Scapegoating
 Rationalization
 Wishful thinking
 Short-term thinking
 Selective perception
 Selective memory
 Overpowering emotions
 Self-deception
 Face-saving
 Fear of change
Let’s examine in detail five of these impediments Egocentrism, sociocentrism, relativistic
thinking, unwarranted assumptions, and wishful thinking that play an especially powerful role in
hindering critical thinking.

Egocentrism
Egocentrism is the tendency to see reality as center on oneself. Egocentrism are selfish, self-
absorbed people who view their own interests, ideas, and values as superior to everyone else’s.
All of us are affected to some degree by egocentrism biases.
Egocentrism can manifest itself in a variety of ways. Two common forms are:
Self-interested thinking
Self-serving biased

Self-interested thinking
Self-interested thinking is the tendency to accept and defend beliefs that harmonize with one’s
own self-interest. Almost no one is immune from self-interested thinking. Most doctors support
legislation making it more difficult for them to be sued for malpractice; most lawyers do not.
Most state university professors strongly support tenure, paid sabbaticals, low teaching loads,
and strong faculty voice in university governance; many state taxpayers and university
administrators do not. Most factory workers support laws requiring advance notice of plan
closings; most factory owners did not. Most American voters favor campaign finance reform;
most elected politicians do not. Of course, some of these beliefs may be supported by good
reasons. Form a psychological standpoint, however, it is likely that self-interest plays at least
some role in shaping the respective attitudes and beliefs.
Self-interested thinking, however understandable it may seem, is a major obstacle to
critical thinking. Everyone finds it tempting at times to reason that “this benefits me, therefore it
must be good”; but from a critical thinking standpoint, such “reasoning” is a sham. Implicit in
such thinking is the assumption that “what is most important is what I want and need.” But shy
should I, or anyone else, accept such an arbitrary and obviously self-serving assumption? What
makes your wants and needs more important than everyone else’s? Critical thinking condemns
such special pleading. It demands that we weigh evidence and arguments objectively and
impartially. Ultimately, it demands that we revere truth even when it hurts.
Self-serving biased
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Self-serving bias is the tendency to overrate oneself to see oneself as better in some
respect than one actually is. We have all known braggarts or know-it-alls who claim to be more
talented or knowledgeable than they really are. If you are like most people, you probably think of
yourself as being an unusually self-aware person who is largely immune from any such self-
deception. If so, then you too are probably suffering from self-serving bias.

Sociocentrism
Sociocentrism is group-centered thinking. Just as egocentrism can hinder rational thinking by
focusing excessively on the self, so sociocentrism can hinder rational thinking by focusing
excessively on the group.
Sociocentrism can distort critical thinking in many ways. Tow of the most important are:
Group Bias
Conformism
Group Bias
Group bias is the tendency to se one’s own group (nation, tribe, sect, peer group, and the
like) as being inherently better than others. Social scientists tell us that such thinking is
extremely common throughout human history and across cultures. Just as we seem naturally
inclined to hold inflated views of ourselves, so we find it easy to hold inflated views of our
family, or community, or our nation. Conversely, we find it easy to look with suspicion or
disfavor on those we regard as “outsiders.”
Most people absorb group bias unconsciously, usually from early child-hood. It is
common, for example, for people to grow up thinking that their society’s beliefs, institutions, and
values are better than those of other societies.
Conformism
Conformism refers to our tendency to follow the crowd that is , to conform (often
unthinkingly) to authority or to group standards of conduct and belief. The desire to belong, to be
part of the in-group, can be among the most powerful of human motivations.
The lesson of these studies is clear: Authority moves us. We are impressed, influenced,
and intimidated by authority, so much so that, under the right conditions, we abandon our own
values, beliefs, and judgments, even doubt our own immediate sensory experience. As critical
thinkers, we need to be aware of the seductive power of peer pressure and reliance on authority
and develop habits of independents thinking to combat them.

Unwarranted Assumptions and Stereotypes

An assumption is something we take for granted, something we believe to be true without any
proof or conclusive evidence. Almost everything we think and do is based on assumptions. If the
weather report calls for rain, we take an umbrella because we assume that the meteorologist is
not lying, that that the report is based on a scientific analysis of weather patterns, that the
instruments are accurate, and so forth. There may be no proof that any of this is true, but we
realize that it is wiser to take the umbrella than to insist that the weather bureau provide
exhaustive evidence to justify its prediction.
Many of our beliefs and opinions are also base n assumptions. One might base support of
capital punishment on the assumption that it deters crime. A politician might base opposition to
higher taxes on the assumption that most people don’t want to pay them. The assumptions may
or may not be correct, but without evidence they are really only guesses. Whereas taking an
umbrella poses no extra burden, holding a position based on assumptions can be problematic. We
all know the frustration and distress of discovering that an important belief or decision was based
on assumptions that turned out to have no basis in fact.
Although we often hear the injection “Don’t assume,” it would be impossible to get
through a day without making assumptions; in fact, many of our daily actions are base on
 Introduction to Critical Thinking 8

assumptions we have drawn from the patterns in our experience. You go to class at the scheduled
time because you assume that class is being held at its normal hour and in its same place. You
don’t call the professor each day to ask if class is being held; you just assume that it is. Such
assumptions are warranted, such means that we have good reason to hold them. When you see a
driver coming toward you with the turn signal on, you gave good reason to believe that the driver
intends to turn. You may be in correct, and it might be safer to withhold action until you are
certain, but your assumption is not unreasonable.
Unwarranted assumptions, however, are unreasonable. An unwarranted assumption is
something take for granted without good reason. Such assumption s often prevent our seeing
things clearly. For example, our attraction for someone might cause us to assume that he or she
feels the same way and thus to interpret that person’s actions incorrectly.
One of the most common types of unwarranted assumptions is a stereotype. The word
stereotype comes from the printing press era, when plates, or stereotypes, were used to produce
identical copies of one page. Similarly, when we stereotype, as the word is now used, we assume
that individual people have all been stamped from one plate, so all college sophomores are alike,
or all politicians, or police officers, or African Americans, professors, women, and so forth.
When we form an opinion of someone that is based not on his or her individual qualities but,
rather, on his or her membership in a particular group, we are assuming that all or virtually all
members of the group are alike. Be cause people are not identical, no matter what race or other
similarities they share stereotypical conceptions will often be false or misleading.
Typically, stereotypes are arrived at through a process known as hasty generalization, in which
one draws a conclusion about a large class of things(in this case, people) from a small sample. If
we meet one South Bergian who is rude, we might jump to the conclusion that all South Bergians
are rude. Or might generalize form what we have heard from a few friends or read in a single
news story. Often the medial advertisements, the news, movies, and so forth encourage
stereotyping by the way they portray groups of people.
Critical thinking demands that we become aware of our own thinking, including our
assumptions, a conscious assumption is one of which we are aware: we know that we are taking
something for granted. We might stop and say, “I’m gong to assume that this weather report is
accurate” or “I’m assuming that we have class today.” Of course, it would don’t be possible to
uncover every assumption that informs our thinking. You have made countless assumptions
since you awoke this morning. And being conscious of an unwarranted assumption does not
justify it’ saying, “I’m aware of my tendency to stereotype” does not justify stereotyping.
The assumptions we need to become most conscious of are not the ones that lead to our
routine behaviors, such as carrying an umbrella or going to class, but the ones upon which we
base our more important attitudes, actions, and decisions. If we are conscious of our tendency to
stereotype, we can take measures to end it.

Relativistic Thinking
Relativism is the view that truth is a matter of opinion. There are to popular forms of relativism:
Subjectivism Relativism
Cultural Relativism

Subjectivism Relativism:
Subjectivism is the view that truth is matter of individual opinion. This is the view Janie
apparently hold. According to subjectivism, whatever an individual believes is true, is true for
that person, and there is no such thing as “objective” or “absolute” truth, i.e., truth that exists
independent of what anyone believes. For example, suppose Bobby believes that abortion is
wrong and Alice believes that abortion is not always wrong. According to subjectivism, abortion
is always wrong for Bobby and not always wrong for Alice. Both beliefs are true for them. And
truth for one individual or another is the only kind of truth there is.
Cultural Relativism
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The other common form of relativism is cultural relativism. This is the claim that truth is
matter of social or cultural opinion. In other words, cultural relativism is the view that what Is
true for person A is what person A’s culture or society believes is true. Drinking wine, for
example, is widely considered to be wrong in Iran but is not generally considered to be wrong in
France. According to cultural relativism, therefore, drinking wine is immoral in Iran but is
morally permissible in France. Thus, for the cultural relativist, just as for the subjectivist, there is
no objective or absolute standard of truth. What is true is what ever most people in a society or
culture believe to be true.
Relatively few people endorse subjectivism or cultural relativism in the pure, unqualified forms
in which we have stated them. Almost everybody would admit, for example, that 1+1=2 is true,
no matter who might be ignorant or deluded enough to deny it. What relativists usually claim,
therefore, is not that all truth is relative, but that truth is relative in some important domains. By
far the most common form of relativism is moral relativism. Like relativism generally, moral
relativism comes in tow major forms: moral subjectivism and cultural moral relativism.
Moral subjectivism:
Moral subjectivism is the view that what is morally right and good for an individual, A, is
whatever A believes is morally right and good. Thus, if Andy believes that premarital sex is
always wrong and Jennifer believes that it is not always wrong; according to moral subjectivism
premarital sex is always wrong for Andy and is not always wrong for Jennifer.

Cultural Moral Relativism:

Cultural moral relativism is the view that what is morally right and good for an individual, A, is
whatever A’s society or culture believes is morally right and good. Thus, according to cultural
moral relativism, if culture A believes that polygamy is wrong, and culture B believes that
polygamy is right, and then polygamy is wrong for culture A and right for culture B.
Cultural moral relativism is a very popular view today, especially among the young.
There are tow major reasons people seem to find it so attractive. One has to do with the nature of
moral disagreement and the other concerns the value of tolerance.
Ethics, obviously, is very different form math or science. In math and science, there are
arguments and disagreements, but not nearly to the extent there are in ethics. In ethics there is
widespread disagreement, the disagreements often go very deep, and there seems to be no
rational way to resolve many of them. What this shows, some people conclude, is that there is no
objective truth in ethics; morality is just a matter of individual or societal opinion.
Another reason people find cultural moral relativism attractive is that it seems to support
the value of tolerance. Throughout history, terrible wars, persecution, and act of religious and
cultural imperialism have been perpetrated by people who firmly believed in the absolute
righteousness of their more beliefs and practices. Cultural moral relativism seems to imply that
we must be tolerant f other culture’s moral beliefs and values. If culture A believes that
polygamy is wrong, and culture B believes that it is right, then culture A must agree that
polygamy is right for culture, no matter how offensive the practice may be to culture A.

Wishful Thinking
Wishful thinking describes decision-making and the formation of beliefs based on what might
be pleasing to imagine, rather than on evidence, rationality, or reality. It is a product of resolving
conflicts between belief, and desire.
Once, as a Little Leaguer, one of the authors was thrown out at the plate in a foolish attempt to
stretch a triple into a home run, possibly costing the team the game. Angry and disappointed, he
refused to believe that he had really been thrown out. “I was safe by a mile,” he said plaintively
to his disbelieving coaches and teammates. It was only years later, when he was an adult, that he
could admin to himself that he really had been out, in fact, by a mile.
Have you ever been guilty of wishful thinking believing something not because you had
good evidence for it but simply because you wished it were true? If so, you’re not alone.
 Introduction to Critical Thinking 10

Throughout human history, reason has done battle with wishful thinking and has usually come
out the loser.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CRITICAL
THINKER
So far, we have discussed:
1. The nature of critical thinking
2. Key critical thinking standards such as clarity, precision, accuracy, and fairness
3. The benefits of critical thinking
4. Some major impediments to critical thinking, including egocentrism, sociocentrism,
relativistic thinking, unwarranted assumptions, and wishful thinking.
The following list contrasts some of the key intellectual traits of critical thinkers with the
relevant traits of uncritical thinkers:

No. Critical Thinkers Uncritical Thinkers

1. Have a passionate drive for clarity precision, Often think in ways that are unclear,
accuracy, and other critical thinking standards. imprecise, and inaccurate.
2. Are sensitive to ways in which critical Often fall prey to egocentrism,
thinking can be skewed by egocentrism, sociocentrism, relativistic thinking,
sociocentrism, wishful thinking, and other unwarranted assumptions, and wishful
impediments. thinking.
3. Understand the value of critical thinking, both See little value in critical thinking.
to individuals and to society as a whole.
4. Are intellectually honest with themselves, Pretend they know more than they do and
acknowledging what they don’t know and ignore their limitations.
recognizing their limitations.
5. Listen open-mindedly to opposing points of Are close-mined and resist criticisms of
view and welcome criticisms of beliefs and beliefs and assumptions.
assumptions.
6. Base their beliefs on facts and evidence rather
Often base beliefs on mere personal
than on personal preference or self-interest. preference or self-interest.
7. Are aware of the biases and preconceptions Lack awareness of their own biases and
that shape the way they perceive the world. preconceptions.
8. Think independently and are not afraid to Tend to engage in “groupthink,”
disagree with group opinion. uncritically following the beliefs and
values of the crowd.
9. Are able to get to the heart of an issue or a Are easily distracted and lack the ability
problem, without being distracted by details. to get the essence of an issue or a
problem.
10. Have the intellectual courage to face and Fear and resist ideas that challenge their
assess fairly ideas that challenge even their basic beliefs.
most basic beliefs.
11. Pursue truth and are curious about a wide Are often relatively indifferent to truth
range of issues. and lack curiosity.
12. Have the intellectual perseverance to pursue Tend not to persevere when they
insights or truths despite obstacles or encounter intellectual obstacles or
difficulties. difficulties.

TEACHING OF CRITICAL THINKING

SKILLS
 Introduction to Critical Thinking 11

Direct Teaching
Beyer (1984,P.588) summarizing a body of opinion, advises that teachers should:
 Define the skill to be learned, its purpose, and the thinking it calls for
 Model (demonstrate and explain) the skill
 Provide a classroom climate and use teaching methods that enable students to concentrate
fully on the skill they are learning
 Provide frequent (not massed) practice sessions that include feedback and correction
 Provide learners with opportunities to talk about their use of the skill
 Provide learners with guidance for achieving a content-related goal
 Provide learners with opportunities to practice learning skills in new contexts

Teach problem solving

All students face problems every day, whether with schoolwork, with peers or at home.
Students approach a problem in one of four ways:
 They ignore the problem and hope it will go way
 They ignore the problem and don’t care whether it goes away.
 They try to solve the problem as best they can, even though they lack training in
Problem Solving
 Having been taught problem-solving skills, they approach the problem in a sound
systematic way.
Problem Solving Steps:
 Recalling or acquiring the information needed to solve a problem
 Following an effective problem-solving procedure
One organized approach to problem solving is outlined in Data Collection Form. You might use
the approach suggested there to help your students to analyze problems by taking the following
steps:
 Identify the problem.
 Determine the causes of the problem.
 Focus on the most serious cause.
 Brainstorm possible solutions.
 Choose the most promising solution.
 Identify action needed to apply solution.
 Apply action.
 Observe results.
 Use you observation as necessary to deal with other problems by repeating the steps.

OBSERVE AND MONITOR STUDENTS’ USE OF

THINKING SKILLS
In classrooms in which students receive little encouragement to practice thinking skills, student
behaviors ten to exhibit the following characteristics:
 Extreme impulsiveness, with an emphasis on doing, unsupported by much thinking
 Over dependency on the teacher’s instructions
 Dogmatic assertions that indicate unwillingness to consider new approaches to learning
 An inability to apply learned principles to new situations
 An unwillingness to accept personal responsibility for implementing learning strategies
Learning that emphasizes thinking relates to students’ emotions, the pressures they perceive,
their self-concept, the dynamics of the class group, and the teacher’s attitudes. Involving learners
in the process of acquiring knowledge promotes thinking skills, as do acceptance, support,
probes, and encouragement.

EVALUATE STUDENT USE OF THINKING SKILLS

 Introduction to Critical Thinking 12

Not only should thinking skills be directly taught, but they should also be evaluated and reward.
Reward students who show evidence of creativity and reward improvements, for students who
have been encouraged to use their creative talents will likely use them well throughout their
lives. Allocate some marks in each subject to reflect students’ progress in their use of thinking
skills. Thinking skills must be practiced in both broad and narrow frameworks, in many different
contexts (e.g., through written and oral descriptions, record keeping, and problem solving), and
in both supervised and self-monitored situations. The use of a thinking skill in its simplest form
and in a familiar context should be acknowledged at the lowest level of reward. The level should
be advanced as the learner uses a skill in increasingly divergent contexts.

DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE

REASONING
Teaching through Deductive Reasoning
The deductive reasoning process begins with a thinker’s identifying a concept or generalization,
defining it, and then classifying particular related examples and non-examples on the basis of the
definition framed. In other words, the deductive process or sequence involves framing a concept
or generalization and then identifying a number of examples and non-examples to verify and
support it.

Promoting Deductive Reasoning

To encourage students to form a concept by using deductive reasoning (i.e. by reasoning form a
general situation to particular instances), you might use the following steps:

Deductive and Inductive Reasoning

Generalization/Role Generalization/Role

Identification of Example A, Classification of Example A,

Example B, Example c, etc. Example B, Example c, etc.

Classification of Examples Perception of Example A,

Example B, Example c, etc.

Deductive Reasoning of Process Inductive Reasoning of Process

Establish set for determining what constitutes, say, a fish.

 Have students list on the chalkboard examples of creatures that live in aquatic habitats.
 Have students subdivide their list into groups by identifying critical and noncritical
attributes of the creatures listed
 Ask for other examples of each group
 Asks for non-examples of each group
 Have students name the groups identified
 Help students define the term firs, including and relating the attributes
 Provide a list of examples and non-examples of fish for student to distinguish have them
explain their choices
 Check for understanding by asking questions or testing
 Introduction to Critical Thinking 13

Teaching through Deductive Reasoning

The inductive reasoning process begins with identifying a number of particular examples and
non-examples, analyzing and classifying them and then framing a concept or generalization
based on them.

Promoting Inductive Reasoning

To encourage students to form a concept through inductive reasoning (i.e. by reasoning from
particular instances to a general conclusion) you might use the following steps:
 Establish set for determining what constitutes, say, a mammal.
 Ask for one example of a mammal, and write a correct response on the chalkboard
 Ask for names of creatures that are not mammals, and list correct responses
 Using the material recorded on the chalkboard, have students compare and relate
attributes to distinguish the critical attributes form the noncritical (incidental) attributes.
 Ask students to define the term mammals
 Provide a list of creatures for several small groups, and ask groups to use research
sources to determine which creatures are mammals by applying the definition framed by
the class
 Debrief your class when the research is complete, and have them confirm or reframe their
definition, drawing attention to examples and their relation to one another.

Deductive or Inductive Reasoning

In planning to teach a topic that calls for close logical reasoning, you will have to decide whether
to approach your lesson through deductive or inductive reasoning. Your choices will help you to
determine what strategies you will use. Direct and explicit instruction, lecture, inquiry, and
small-group problem solving are methods seem particularly applicable to teaching one or the
other approach, whereas others may lend themselves equally to both processes.
Both deductive and inductive reasoning provide valuable approaches to teaching
concepts, generalizations, and skills. A deductive approach takes less instructions time and can
provide more predictable learning outcomes, since it can involve closer teacher control. An
inductive approach may waste time if it results in unplanned and unsuitable examples, or if
students are not mature or confident enough to be comfortable working on their own; on the
other hand, since the inductive approach requires less teacher involvement, students who are
capable of using the approach independently may better understand and remember what they
learn.
It is wise to choose your approach according to the learning objectives you have set, and
the developmental and skill levels of your class.

 Suggestion of Teaching Critical Thinking Skills

 Recall is the simplest action. You recall facts, describe objects and events or put them
into sequence.
 Noting similarities is the action to compare the likeness of situations, ideas, people, etc.
 Noting differences is the action to examine what is different about ideas, events or objects
by contrasting them.
 Identifying cause and effect is the action to analyze the reasons, consequences or make
predictions.
 Forming generalizations is the action of grouping facts or events into patterns.
 Substantiation is the action that moves from general to specific.
 Evaluation is the action that judges things or events. Based on the facts gathered, you
determine the value of an idea or concept.
Here are some guidelines for teaching critical thinking:
Solve problems to make conclusions.
Use variety of teaching strategies to promote critical thinking skill such as
problem solving and decision making.
 Introduction to Critical Thinking 14

Encourage group problem solving and decision making. Your students will enjoy
learning together.
Make judgments based on credible sources, such as, experts, agreement between sources,
reputable individuals, etc.
What are the values of teaching critical thinking?
1. The more the students use it, the better critical thinkers they become.
2. The more quality questions they ask, the better critical thinkers they become.
3. When students ask questions, there is interaction of new information with what they
already know so new knowledge is created.
4. This newly created knowledge helps them become more effective persons and hopefully assists
them in realizing their life goals.

SUMMARY
 “Teaching for thinking” for which a number of systems have been developed, is a
fundamental component of instruction that requires a positive classroom climate and high
student self-concept.
 Deliberate planning, a prerequisite for successful teaching of thinking skills, includes
considering various methods of thinking (e.g., creative, critical, dialectical, and decision
making) and selecting methods of instruction, activities, and materials.
 Direct teaching of thinking skills includes integration new and familiar information,
organizing process or content, delivering instructions, promoting and monitoring practice,
rewarding effort and achievement, and reflecting and evaluating.
 The teaching, modeling, and provision of opportunities for the use of deductive and
monitoring practice, rewarding effort and achievement, and reflecting and evaluating.
 The teaching, modeling, and provision of opportunities for the use of deductive and
inductive reasoning are important means of promoting students’ development of thinking
skills.
 Deductive reasoning involves identifying a concept or generalization, defining it, and
then classifying particular related examples and non-examples on the basis of the general
definition.
 Inductive reasoning involves indentifying a number of particular examples and non-
examples, and framing a concept or generalization based on them.

References.
Online Resources
 Critical Thinking Standards (Judith P. Ruland PhD). URL:
http://www.fctl.ucf.edu/tresources/content/Ruland-CriticalThinkingStandards.pdf
Books
 Chapter 1 & 2:
G Bassham, W Irwin, H Nardone, J M Wallace, Critical Thinking: A Student's
Introduction, McGraw-Hill International Edition, 2007
John Chaffee, Thinking Critically, 6th Edition, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 2000
Baron,J., & Manning, M.L. (1992). Thinking shills; Theory and practice. Now York;
Freeman.

Belth ,M.(1977). The process of thinking. Now Yourk; David McKay.

 Introduction to Critical Thinking 15

Bereiter, C.(191,April). Implication of connectionism for thinking about rules.

Educational Researcher,pp. 10-16.

Beyer,B.(1984),Improving thinking skills: Practical approaches. Phi Delta Kappan,85(8),

556-560.

Cooper, J (Ed.). (1986a). Classroom theaching skills: A hand book. (3 rd ed.). Lexington.
MA:Heath.

De Bono, E.(1983). The direct teaching of thinking as a skill. Phi Delta Kappan,
64(10),703-708.

Dickie,B. (1990). Towards critical teacher education. In International Society for Teacher
Education, Development in the next decade. Preoceeding of the Tenth Annual
International Seminar in Teacher Education. Taiapi, Taiwan Republic of China.

Glatthorn, A., & Baron, J.(1985). The good thinker. In Teaching skill full thinking: A
four-part video based staff development programme for educators. Alexandra, VA:
Association for Supervision and Curriculim Development, 1990.

Halpern,D. (1984). Thought and knowledge: An introduction to critical thinking.

Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Kaplan, M. (1992). Thinking in Education. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University

Press.

McGowan, M. (1988). Problem solving initiatives. Jounal of Experiential Education,

11(3), 15-17.

Nickerson,R. (1989). On improving thinking through instruction. Review of Research in

Education, 15, 3-37 (Edited by E. Rathkoph).

Stern Berg, R.(1985). Teaching critical thinking. Part 1: Are we making critical mistakes?
Phi Delta Kappan, 67, 194-198.; Part 2: Possible solutions. Phi Delta Kappan, 67, 277-
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