Control and Coordination

Animals - Nervous System

Central Nervous System: The central nervous system is composed of the brain and the spinal
cord. The brain controls all the functions in the human body. The spinal cord works as the relay
channel for signals between the brain and the peripheral nervous system.

Transmission of nerve impulse: Dendrites → cell body → axon → nerve endings at the tip
of axon → synapse → dendrite of next neuron.

Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ): NMJ is the point where a muscle fibre comes in contact with a
motor neuron carrying nerve impulse from the control nervous system.

Synapse: The point contact between the terminal branches of axon of one neuron with the dendrite
of another neuron is called synapse.

Neuron:

Receptors: Receptors are the specialized tips of the nerve fibres that collect the information to be
conducted by the nerves. Receptors are in the sense organs of the animals.

The nervous system consists of special cells called neurons. It can be divided into two main parts –
central nervous system and peripheral nervous system.
The classification of nervous system into various parts is given in the following chart:

Control and Coordination in Human

Classified of receptors:

Phono-receptors: These are present in the inner ear.

Functions: The main functions are hearing and balance of the body.
Photo-receptors: These are present in the eye.
Function: These are responsible for visual stimulus.
Thermo-receptors: These are present in skin.
Functions: These receptors are responsible for pain, touch and heat stimuli.
These receptors are also known as thermoreceptors.
Olfactory-receptors: These are present in the nose.
Functions: These receptors receive smell.
Gustatory-receptors: These are present in the tongue.
Functions: These help in taste detection.

Functions of nervous system:

The function of the nervous system is to coordinate the activities of our body.
It helps all other systems of our body to work together.
It receives information from the surroundings, processes it, interprets it and then responds
accordingly.

Neuron: Neuron is a highly specialized cell which is responsible for the transmission of nerve
impulses.

i. Cyton or cell body: The cell body or cyton is somewhat star-shaped, with many hair like
structures protruding out of the margin. These hair-like structures are called dendrites.
Dendrites receive the nerve impulses.
ii. Axon: This is the tail of the neuron. It ends in several hair-like structures, called axon
terminals. The axon terminals relay nerve impulses.
iii. Myelin sheath: There is an insulator cover around the axon. This is called myelin sheath.
The myelin sheath insulates the axon against nerve impulse from the surroundings.
Types of neuron

Sensory neuron: These neurons receive signals from a sense organ.

Motor neuron: These neurons send signals to a muscle or a gland.
Association or relay neuron: These neurons relay the signals between sensory neuron and
motor neuron.

Autonomous Nervous System: The autonomous nervous system is composed of a chain of nerve
ganglion which runs along the spinal cord. It controls all the involuntary actions in the human
body. The autonomous nervous system can be divided into two parts :

Sympathetic nervous system.

Parasympathetic nervous system.

Sympathetic Nervous System: This part of the autonomous nervous system heightens the activity
of an organ as per the need. For example, during running, there is an increased demand for oxygen
by the body.

Parasympathetic Nervous System: This part of the autonomous nervous system slows down the
activity of an organ and thus has a calming effect. During sleep, the breathing rate slows down and
so does the heart rate. This is facilitated by the parasympathetic nervous system.

Parts of Human Brain:

Fore-brain: It is composed of the cerebrum.

Mid-brain: It is composed of the hypothalamus.
Hind-brain: It is composed of the cerebellum, pons, medulla, oblongata.

Cerebrum: The cerebrum is the largest part in the human brains.

Functions of cerebrum

The cerebrum controls voluntary motor actions.

It is the site of sensory perceptions, like tactile and auditory perceptions.
It is the seat of learning and memory.

Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus lies at the base of the cerebrum. It controls sleep and wake
cycle (circadian rhythm) of the body. It also controls the urges for eating and drinking.
Cerebellum: Cerebellum lies below the cerebrum and at the back of the whole structure.

It coordinates the motor functions.

It controls posture and balance.
It controls the precision of voluntary action.

Medulla: Medulla forms the brain stem, along with the pons.

It lies at the base of the brain and continues into the spinal cord. The medulla controls
various involuntary functions, like hear beat respiration, etc.
It controls involuntary actions.
Example: Blood pressure, salivation, vomiting.

Pons: It relays impulses between the lower cerebellum and spinal cord, and higher parts of the
brain like the cerebrum and midbrain, also regulates respiration.

Spinal cord: Spinal cord controls the reflex actions and conducts massages between different parts
of the body and brain.

Reflex Action: Reflex action is a special case of involuntary movement involuntary organs. When
a voluntary organ is in the vicinity of sudden danger, it is immediately pulled away from the danger
to save itself. For example, when your hand touches a very hot electric iron, you move away your
hand in a jerk. All of this happens in flash and your hand is saved from the imminent injury. This is
an example of reflex action.

Muscular Movements and Nervous Control:

Coordination in Plants

Control and Co-ordination in Plants

The four types of plant hormones are:

i. Auxins - It promotes cell enlargement and cell differentiation in plants.

ii. Gibberellines - It helps in breaking the dormancy in seeds and buds.
iii. Cytokinins - these promotes cell division in plants.
iv. Abscisic acid - It promotes the dormancy in seeds and buds.

Movements in plants can be divided into two main types :

i. Tropic movement
ii. Nastic movement

Nastic movements: The movement of a plant part in response to an external stimulus in which the
direction of response is not determined by the direction of stimulus is called nastic movement.

Nastic movements are of two types - thigmonasty and photonasty.

Thigmonasty - The non-directional movement of a plant part in response to the touch of an

object is called thigmonasty. Example: The folding up of the leaves of a sensitive plant on
touching is an example of thigmonasty.
Photonasty - The non-directional movement of a plant part in response to light is called
photonasty.

Tropic Movement: The movements which are in a particular direction in relation to the stimulus
are called tropic movements. Tropic movements happen as a result of growth of a plant part in a
particular direction.

i. Geotropic movement:
ii. Phototropic Movement
iii. Hydrotropic Movement
iv. Thigmotropism Movement

Phototropism - The movement of a plant part in response to light is called phototropism. Its
stimulus is light.
Geotropism: The movement of a plant part in response to gravity is called geotropism. Its stimulus
is gravity. Example - Roots grow towards gravity.

If the plant part moves against the direction of the gravity it is negative geotropism. Example -
Stem.

Chemotropism: The movement of a plant part in response to a chemical stimulus is called

chemotropism. Its stimulus is chemical.

Hydrotropism: The movement of a plant part in response to a water stimulus is called

hydrotropism. Its stimulus is water. The roots of a plant always go towards water, this is positive
hydrotropism.

Thigmotropism: The movement of a plant part in response to a touch stimulus is called

thigmotropism. Its stimulus is touch.

Hormones in Animals

Endocrine System: The endocrine system is composed of several endocrine glands. A ductless
gland is called endocrine gland. Endocrine gland secretes its product directly into the bloodstream.
Hormones are produced in the endocrine glands.

Hormone is mainly composed of protein. Hormones assist the nervous system in control and co-
ordination. Nervous do not react to every nook and corner of the body and hence hormones are
needed to affect control and coordination in those parts.

Hormones: These are the chemical messengers secreted in very small amounts by specialised
tissues called ductless glands. They act on target tissues/organs usually away from their source.
Endocrine System helps in control and coordination through chemical compounds called
hormones.

Endocrine Gland: A ductless gland that secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream.

Pituitary gland (also known as the master gland)

Location: At the base of the brain
Hormones produced :

Growth hormone (GH).

Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH).
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

Functions :

GH stimulates growth.
SH stimulates the functioning of the thyroid gland.
FSH stimulates the follicles during ovulation.

Thyroid Gland
Location: Neck
Hormones produced : Thyroxine
Function : Controls general metabolism and growth in the body.

Adrenal gland
Location: Above kidneys
Hormones produced: Adrenalin
Function: Prepares the body for emergency situations and hence is also called ‘Fight and flight’
hormone.

Pancreas
Location : Near stomach
Hormones produced : Insulin
Function : Controls blood sugar level

Testis (male)
Location: In Scrotum
Hormones produced: Testosterone
Function: Sperm production, development of secondary sexual characters during puberty.

Ovary (female)
Location: Near uterus
Hormones produced: Oestrogen
Function: Egg production, development of secondary sexual characters during puberty.

Diabetes:
Cause : It is due to deficiency of insulin hormone secreted by pancreas that is responsible to
lower/control the blood sugar levels.
Treatment : Patients have to internally administer injections of insulin hormone which helps in
regulating blood-sugar level.

Feedback mechanism : A type of self-regulating mechanism in which the level of one substance
in body influences the level of another.