G owda |1

Optimizing Satellite Orbits and Communication Patterns Using Graph Theory and Machine Learning

- Bhavan Gowda

12/20/2024
 G owda |2

Introduction

Satellites are the root causes of new advancements in technology in modern times with their

role in communication, weather forecasting, GPS navigation, and disaster monitoring(Smith,2023).

However, their communication networks and orbit are indeed mostly suboptimal, which causes

inefficiencies in fuel consumption and communication latency. In particular, satellite networks need

a continuous optimization source for consistent global coverage and low operational costs. Current

satellite systems like Starlink, GPS, and communication satellites face challenges in maximizing

communication efficiency and minimizing resource expenditure. My goal for this research is to

show the inefficiencies in satellite communication networks by integrating graph theory and

machine learning into satellite orbits and communication patterns. The challenge is finding optimal

routes and configurations that can decrease the fuel consumed and maintain an effective range of

global communication, which I will call coverage(Diestel, R).

Adding graph theory to satellite communication networks will greatly improve the

efficiency of communication patterns, and using machine learning along with graph theory will

boost coverage by ~16.7% based on previous simulations. The machine learning models can predict

a more efficient orbital path that greatly reduces fuel consumption. Graph theory is used in solving

many complex network problems in computer science, in areas like network design, routing,

algorithms, data analysis, and algorithm design, where it would be visualized by interconnected

nodes and edges, as well as in biology, transportation, and chemistry. This theory concepts like

shortest paths, minimum spanning trees, and clustering coefficients will give me the most optimal

time and ability to make connections between nodes in a network. In the context of satellite

communication, satellites will be nodes in a network, and communication strands will be links

named edges(Smith,2023). The importance of adding graph theory to this project is because it

allows me to optimize these connections by minimizing the distance signals travel, reducing delays,
 G owda |3

and making sure of network redundancy. (Diestel, R)Based on my background research in network

optimization, has shown me the effectiveness of graphical approaches in terrestrial communication

systems such as radio transmissions, but never satellites due to its many variables such as gravity,

orbit speed, distance, and radio strength. Machine learning models like the Random Forest and

neural networks have been successfully added to many projects. In satellite networks machine

learning can be used to predict the most efficient orbits based on data I have collected from NASA’s

APIs; this included satellite position, velocity, and fuel consumption. Studies before have explored

machine learning applications. One example is collision avoidance and avoidance and autonomous

satellite navigation. Machine learning is not artificial intelligence which gives it a great advantage,

because machine learning algorithms improve performance over time as they are trained by being

shown more data. Satellite networks, like GPS and weather tracking, are great networks that

perform well but why not perform better? Recent methods rely too much on manual adjustments

and deterministic algorithms, which can be inefficient and resource-intensive in the long

run(Diestel, R). Automated systems that leverage graph theory and machine learning could get cost

savings and performance improvements. Real-world applications of this project are satellite

constellations like Starlink, which wants to provide global internet coverage through a network of

thousands of low-Earth orbit satellites. Optimizing the orbits and communication patterns of these

constellations could improve service and reliability and reduce costs.

 G owda |4

Research

1. The Foundations of Satellite Communication Networks

Satellite communication networks were first seen in the mid-20th century when the launch

of the first artificial satellite, named Sputnik in 1957, which marked the beginning of space-based

communication. Later in 1962, Telsat was launched which marked the first communication satellite

that enabled transatlantic communication which was the television broadcast, which made the road

for modern network systems (Smith,2023). Satellite communication systems are is really important

for global interaction. They provide internet access and GPS and facilitate global efforts and disaster

control and monitoring. Even though there are problems with satellite communication from latency

and coverage limits to costly systems and communication failings. These telecommunication failings

are from a satellite system thousands of miles away, with performance enhancements needed,

sitting above us for years. However, in recent years, performance enhancements through machine

learning and geometrical theorems have emerged for maximum efficiency.

2. Graph Theory in Optimizing Satellite Networks

Graph theory is a branch of mathematics that has become a vital tool in optimizing satellite

communication networks. By representing states as nodes and their communication links as edges,

graph theory provides a framework to analyze and also enhance and improve network

performance. Ideas like the shortest path algorithm and minimum spanning trees are used to

reduce communication delays and majorly improve signal reliability (Diestel, 2017). Even though

it's effective, the traditional graph theory method has limitations when applied to dynamic

networks which require adaptability which is where machine learning comes in. The limitations of

static graph theory make researchers explore dynamic solutions. My solution will be adaptive
 G owda |5

machine learning. Before that, we need to understand what graph theory is from a computer

science perspective. It is a concept with abstract structures that are used to model relationships and

interactions. A graph has vertices, which are nodes, that show entities, and edges, which symbolize

connections/relationships or in this project the radio paths, between these nodes (Wilson, S). Edges

can either be directed, indicating a one-way relationship, or undirected, representing mutual

connections. In some cases, graphs are weighted, where edges are assigned numerical values to

represent factors like cost, distance, or capacity. This framework is applied in computer science to

solve problems related to networks, algorithms, and data organization.

 G owda |6

3. Machine Learning and Its Role in Optimization

Machine learning has become a tool for addressing the complex challenges faced by satellite

communication networks (Gandhi, R). By using advanced techniques like regression models and

reinforcement learning algorithms, machine learning gives predictive adjustment of communication

links based on real-time data. Like SpaceX’s Starlink constellation which includes over 4000

satellites that use machine learning to efficiently use network traffic and decrease latency, making

sure the connection is really intelligent in high-demand scenarios (Miller, 2022). These advances

enhance the operational efficiency of satellite networks but also play a vital role in expanding their

coverage to remote areas around the world. This improved access to satellite-based services will

have an impact on essential areas like healthcare, education, and disaster management. Despite

these advancements adding graph theory and machine learning in satellite communication systems

is an area that has not been done yet. Adding these two tools is not so easy so we need a formula.

Example: Machine learning Algorithm for a Linear Regression(Gandhi, R) (Regression is a method of

modeling a target value based on independent predictors. With the addition of Gradient Descent

and Cost Function) Cost function

n
2
a0 = a0 − σ × ∑(predi − yi )
n
i=1
n
2
a1 = a1 − σ × ∑(predi − yi ) × xi
n
i=1
Gradient Descent
n
1
J = ∑(predi − yi )2
n
i=1
n
1
J= ∑(a0 + a1 × xi − yi )2
n
i=1
n n
∂J 2 ∂J 2
= ∑(a0 + a1 × xi − yi ) ⇒ = ∑(predi − yi )
∂a0 n ∂a0 n
i=1 i=1
n n
∂J 2 ∂J 2
= ∑(a0 + a1 × xi − yi ) × xi ⇒ = ∑(predi − yi ) × xi
∂a1 n ∂a1 n
i=1 i=1
 G owda |7

4. Historical Challenges in Satellite Communication

Satellite systems have transformed communication, but their history has been fraught with

challenges, from technological limitations to high operational costs. Early systems like Telstar and

Sputnik faced issues with signal reliability and limited lifespans. As satellite constellations

expanded, problems such as orbital debris, signal interference, and the inefficiency of deterministic

orbital algorithms began to emerge. The modern era demands not just effective deployment but

also real-time adaptability to changing conditions, making optimization crucial.

 G owda |8

Graph Theory Algorithm (7 related to my project)( Gandhi, R)

1. Degree Centrality(Freeman, L)

The degree of a node measures the number of direct connections (edges) it has with other nodes.

Degree(v) = ∑ Auv
uϵV

- Auv: Entry in the adjacency matrix A, where if there is an edge between u and v, otherwise 0

- v: The node for which the degree is calculated

2. Clustering Coefficient(Watts, D)

The clustering coefficient measures how connected the neighbors of a node are to each other.

2 × Number of closed triplets

C(v) =
Number of connected triplets

• A closed triplet involves three nodes that are all connected which forming a triangle shape

• A connected triplet involves three nodes where at least two are connected by edges

For all nodes in the graph, the average clustering coefficient is:

1
C= ∑ C(v)
|V|
u∈V
 G owda |9

3. Shortest Path: Dijkstra’s Algorithm(Dijkstra, E)

The shortest path between two nodes u and v in a graph minimizes the sum of weights on the

edges.

d(u, v) = min ∑ w(x, y)

(x,y)∈P

- P: Path connecting u to v.

- w(x, y): Weight of the edge between nodes x and y

- d(u, v):Total weight of the shortest path

4. Graph Diameter(West, D)

The diameter of a graph is the longest shortest path between any two nodes.

max
Diameter(G) = u, v ∈ d(u, v)

d(u, v)Shortest path distance between nodes u and v

5. Minimum Spanning Tree (MST)( Kruskal, J.)

The MST of a graph is a subset of the edges that connects all nodes with the minimum possible total

edge weight.

MST Weigtt = min ∑ w(u, v)

(u,v)∈E′

- E: The set of all edges in the original graph

- E′: The set of edges included in the Minimum Spanning Tree

 G o w d a | 10

- w(u, v);Wight of an edge between u and v

6. Betweenness Centrality(Freeman, L)

Betweenness centrality measures how often a node acts as a bridge along the shortest path between

other nodes.

σst (v)
BC(v) = ∑
σst
s≠v≠t

- σst Total number of shortest paths from node s to node t

- σst (v): Number of those shortest paths passing through v

7. Eigenvector Centrality(Bonacich, P.)

Eigenvector centrality measures a node's influence based on the influence of its neighbors.

1
xv = ∑ xu
λ
u∈N(v)

- xv : Centrality of node v

- N(x): Set of neighbors of v

- λ: Eigenvalue associated with the centrality

 G o w d a | 11

Finally with the addition of machine learning with these 7 base ruled algorithms (Bonacich, P.)

1. Graph Representation:

A graph G is defined as G= (V, E)

▪ V represents the set of nodes (satellites)

▪ E represents the set of edges (communication links)

Graph metrics are accounted for each node or the entire graph to shows its functional type

properties.

2. Graph Metrics as Features:

Metrics such as degree centrality, clustering coefficient, shortest path, and graph diameter are

computed:

- Degree centrality for node i

Degree(i) = ∑ Aij
j∈V

where A is the adjacency matrix (I have not tried to make yet)

Clustering coefficient for node i

2 × Number of cloesed triplets

C(i) =
Number of connected triplets

Shortest path length between two nodes u and v

d (u, v) using Dijkstra’s algorithm.

Graph diameter

Diameter(G) = maxu,v∈V d(u, v)

 G o w d a | 12

3. Machine Learning Model: Integrated Algorithm

Let:

• XG = {x1, x2 x3, … }: Graph metrics

• XS = {s1, s2 s3, … }Satellite-specific features which will be altitude, velocity, fuel consumption

• Y: Target variable radio transmissions

• fML (x):Machine learning model (e.g., Random Forest, Neural Network).

The machine learning model adds graph theory and satellite-specific tools like)( Bonacich, P.)

y = fML (x) = fML ([𝑋𝐺 , 𝑋𝑆 ])

where [XG, XS] represents the concatenation of graph metrics and satellite features.
 G o w d a | 13

Steps

1. Graph Theory Application

Graph theory is a powerful tool to show satellite communication network systems. In this way

satellites are shown as nodes and their communication links as edges. These connections can be

changed by many reasons like signal strength, latency, and bandwidth. The goal of using graph

theory is to find the best communication paths between satellites and decrease the signal delay but

also improve the performance (Diestel, 2017). Degree centrality calculates how many connections

which are edges a satellite has to other satellites. More of these connections help improve the

network's strength and decrease delays (Freeman, 1979). Clustering coefficient measures how well-

connected a satellite's neighbors are to each other (Watts & Strogatz, 1998). Shortest path

algorithm finds the quickest route between two satellites (Dijkstra, 1959).

2. Machine Learning Integration

Machine learning (ML) is used in this project to adjust satellite orbits in real-time based on network

conditions. We use ML models to predict which satellite positions will make the network more

efficient in terms of fuel use, communication delays, and coverage. The main ML approach involves

using models like Random Forest Regressor to predict fuel consumption and communication delays

based on graph metrics (Breiman, 2001). We train the model with historical data on satellite

positions, velocities, and fuel consumption, helping it learn how different factors like degree

centrality and clustering coefficient affect network performance. (Freeman, 1979) Once the model

is trained, it can be used in real-time to adjust satellite orbits. If the model predicts high

communication delays or fuel use for certain satellites, their positions can be adjusted to optimize

the network. Feature Extraction which gets important features from the graph, like satellite

connections, shortest paths, and clustering, and combine them with satellite data (altitude, velocity,
 G o w d a | 14

fuel consumption). Then model training using historical data to predict fuel use or communication

latency, based on the features. (Watts & Strogatz, 1998)

3d Model of 18x18x18 Satellites in groups

 G o w d a | 15

Visual Model of 18x18x18 satellites connected in a 2d model

 G o w d a | 16

Citations

1. Smith, J. (2023). History of Satellite Communication Networks. Journal of Space Technology.

2. Diestel, R. (2017). Graph Theory. Springer.

3. Miller, A. (2022). The Role of Machine Learning in Satellite Constellations. Communications

Today.

4. SpaceX. (2023). Starlink Satellite Optimization. SpaceX Official Website.

5. Johnson, L. (2021). Satellite Applications in Disaster Response. Journal of Remote Sensing.

6. Arul, Sharmila & Senthil, Gowri & Jayasudha, S. & Alkhayyat, Ahmed & Azam, Khalikov &

Elangovan, R.. (2023). Graph Theory and Algorithms for Network Analysis. E3S Web of

Conferences. 399. 10.1051/e3sconf/202339908002.

7. Dai, Hongguang & Chen, Jinlei & Ni, Yuanyuan & Chen, Hui & Yu, Yawei & Ji, Xiaowei & Wu,

Lei. (2024). Research on improving the efficiency of wireless networking in the power

system. Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 2849. 012100. 10.1088/1742-

6596/2849/1/012100.

8. Perepu, Soumya Sri. (2024). Machine learning.

9. (2022). A REVIEW PAPER ON MACHINE LEARNING AND ITS APPLICATIONS. International

Research Journal of Modernization in Engineering Technology and Science.

10. Kellis, M. (2021). Graph Theory. Texts in Computer Science.

11. Wilson, S. (2020). Short Communication on Graph Theory.

12. Capderou, M. (2005). Satellites: Orbits and Missions.

 G o w d a | 17

13. Seon, K., Han, W., Lee, Y., Lee, H., Kim, M.B., Park, I.H., Jeong, W., Cho, K., Lee, J.J., Lee, D.,

Astronomy, K.K., Institute, S.T., Daejeon, Korea., R.O., Astronomy, D.O., Research, C.F.,

University, Y., Seoul., Physics, D.O., University, S., Suwon, Engineering, D.O., Science, K.A.,

Technology, Science, U.N., & Ulsan (2020). Space missions for astronomy and astrophysics in

Korea: past, present, and future. Journal of the Korean Physical Society, 78, 942 - 971.

14. Gandhi, R. (2018, May 28). Introduction to machine learning algorithms: Linear regression.

Medium. https://towardsdatascience.com/introduction-to-machine-learning-algorithms-linear-

regression-14c4e325882a

15. Freeman, L. C. (1979). Centrality in social networks: Conceptual clarification. Social Networks,

1(3), 215–239. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8733(78)90021-7

16. Watts, D. J., & Strogatz, S. H. (1998). Collective dynamics of 'small-world' networks. Nature,

393(6684), 440–442. https://doi.org/10.1038/30918

17. Dijkstra, E. W. (1959). A note on two problems in connexion with graphs. Numerische

Mathematik, 1(1), 269–271. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01386390

18. West, D. B. (2001). Introduction to graph theory (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall.

19. Kruskal, J. B. (1956). On the shortest spanning subtree of a graph and the traveling salesman

problem. Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society, 7(1), 48–50.

https://doi.org/10.2307/2033241

20. Freeman, L. C. (1977). A set of measures of centrality based on betweenness. Sociometry, 40(1),

35–41. https://doi.org/10.2307/3033543

21. Diestel, R. (2017). Graph theory (5th ed.). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-53622-3

 G o w d a | 18

22. Bonacich, P. (1987). Power and centrality: A family of measures. American Journal of Sociology,

92(5), 1170–1182. https://doi.org/10.1086/228631

23. R. (2020). Graph Theory and Its Real-World Applications. Springer.

G o w d a | 19