6.

6 Job Analysis, Description and

Job
This tehnique is time onsuming and generally does not yield satisfactory results
Cmplovees do not complete the questionnaire or furnish incorrect information
Spbecauseecificatimaonny
because of
imitations. The use of questionnaire is recomnnended only in case of those technical jobs their
job contents are not completelyknown tothe supervisor or the operation is too complex to. the where
2. Observation Method observe.
The most practical and reliable technique of getting information regarding job is .
personal observation of the work performed, coupled with the discussion with the supervisor of the
job. The analvst mav ask questions from the workers on a job.
The conmplete and useful information can be gathered by the use of this technique.
can be used if a particular job is simple and of repetiti ve This
nature. Observations coupied wil. technique
discussions with the supervisor and the workers, constitutes the preferred
cases, to get the required information.
approach in most of the
3. Interview
Job analyst uses interview as a prime method of data collection. He contacts the
workers and the
supervisor concerned and asks questions regarding the various jobs performed by them for collecting
the information. The supervisor may be taken into confidence ir collecting the
information about the
work which the worker is not williu1g tT supply due to certain limitations.
Interview may be used as a
.echnique for comparing the data, collected by the analyst through observation or questionnaire.
This technique can do much to dispel any doubts and suspiciTns which mnight be held. It may
also be useful to crosscheck the information obtained with the incumbents of identical or
similar jobs.
But it may be kept in view that when information is gathered by interviewing, it is the study of
positions and not of persons holding the pusitions.
4. Record

Personnel department maintains the record of the facts regarding job and the job holders. Int
analyst collects the information from the record maintained by the personnel department. In
method is alsO not free fromn defects. Certain information such as supervisor worker
relatiots"r"
tools and accessories used and work conditions are not made available fromn records ana e
complete information about work and worker cannot be obtained by this technique.
5. Critical Incidents
In this method, job holders are asked to describe incidents concerning the job on the basis of their

past experience. The incidents so collected are analysed and classified according to the job areas
describe. Afairly
te
between
clear picture of actual job requirements can be obtained by distinguishing
effective and ineffective behaviour of workers on thejob. However, this method is time consuming-
The analyst requires a high degree of skill to analyse the contents of descriptions given by workers.
from
The above techniques of collecting information are generally used but none of them is freebetter
defects. The analyst should use these techniques in combination and not in isolation to get
results.
 Iob Analysis, Description and Job Specitication 6.7

6. Job Performance
In this methoi. the job analvst actuallv performs the job under studv to obtain a first hand
Nriene of the actual tastes physical and soxial demands and the environment of the jo.This
methed an be us onlv for jobs where skill requirements are low and can therefore. be learnt
ick and easilv. It is not suitable for jobs that are hazardous or for jobs that require exters1ve
training. Morover. it is a verv time consuming method.

Although most employers use the above methods for collecting job analysis data. there are
mzay times when these narrative approaches are not appropriate. In that case, a more quantitative
iob analysis approach may be best. Following are the popular quantitative methods.
QUANTITATIVE METHODS

3 1. Position Analysis Questionnaire

The Position Analvsis Questionnaire PAQ) is a verr structured job analvsis questionnaire. The
PAQ ise!f is filled in bv a job analvst, a peson who shouidalready be acquainted with the partiular
iob to be analvsed. The PAQ contains 194 items, each of which represents a basic element that mav or
on
mav not plav an important role in the job. The job analvst deides whether each item rlavs a ole
the iob and. if so, to that extent. 194job elenments coered br PAQ ae grourd into Si Ains.
(i) Information Input. Where and how do workes get iniomation to do 35 elements
their jobs?
(ii) Mental Processes. IWhat reasoning. planning, onganising and deisin 15 elements
making is done ?
(ii) Work Output. What phvsical activities. tools and machines are us?
4° elenents

(iv) Relationships. IWhat contact with other pple both in the ompan oelemens

and outside of it is maintainei or developed

jb is
(v) Job Context. Vhat is the phvsical and Srial Context in which the
19 elements
performed ?
40 elements
(vi) Oher lob Characteristics. What other aCtivities,
0nditioS or
characteristics not coverd by other categories are relevant
ot anN jh in tems ot hon
Ihe advantage of PAQ is that it provides aquantitative s r pnile
RSuls
uiat job rates on the basic activities. The PAQs eal strength is, thus, in classiN ingis. PAQs
can asigned ir eahi.
elusei to conmpare the jobs relative to one another and a levels
analvst to illout the ratings. However,
Ihe major problenn with PAQ is the time it takes tor a j
PAQ has been widelv reseanchei and testd and apras to hth liable and valid.

2. Management Position Description Questionnaire (MPDa)

iPDQ is astandardisi instrument designi swiialll tor use in analvsing managernal s
The 274 itenn questiounaie ontains 15 stions. lt wou take hours to Omplee the questinair
mst cases the resyndents ane aski to state how imvrtant eah item is to the itim
ErecutiveManagementDevelopment 12.11

method,hasthe advantages of being relatively inexpensive, development of team work and

This
deciston making among managerS, enabling the managers to see the problems from the
ganisationalpointofview rather than departmental or functional point of view.
gronp

)JOBKNOWLEDGE
additionto the above mentioned skills, the executives should also possess knowledge about
ln
perfornmtheir jobs effectively and efficiently. Job knowledge can be acquired through the
jobs
the to
(ollowing methods:
experience. On the job technique is most useful when the objective is to improve
1. On Job the
the
behaviour of executives. Such training is inexpensive and time saving. Training takes
thejob situations and the motivation to learn is high. The success of this technique depends
placein.real
job
immediate supervisor and histeaching capabilities.
uponthe
like scientific and technical personnel.
This techniqueis particularly useful for certain groups. from the daily
T limitation of this method is that neither the trainer nor the trainee are
free
to be low initially, but they may
outine and pressures of the job. The costs of training may appear
Despite the limitations, still it is the
considered.
hm out to be high when wastages of all kinds are
executives.
most popular method of developing the
subordinates about various
2. Coaching. Under this method, the immediate superior guides the
of them and guides them
methods and skills to do the job. He briefs the trainees in what is expected
correct their mistakes. The
how to get it. He also watches their performance and guides them to
extends his assistance whenever
superior only guides and directs but does not teach, althought he
neded. He periodically reviews the performance and suggests changes required in behaviour and
performance. The main objective of coaching is to provide deversified knowledge. Coaching is
obligation to train and
recognised as one of the responsibilities of the managers. The manager has an
to
develop the subordinates working under him. He guides and trains them and prepares them
handle the complex situations.
Merits. The merits of coaching are :
Increased motivation of the trainee, since coaching constitutes learning by doing.
Minimisation of the problems of transferring learning from theory to practice.
can coach his men even
Least centralised staff co-ordination is required, since every executive
if no management development programme exists.
Feed back on performance is received quickly.
Demerits. This method has the following demerits also :
teacher, which he may not
s method relies on the ability of the coach to be a good
necessarily be.
In many cases, the learner cannot develop much beyond the limits of his own boss's abilities.
This technique is authoritarian, for a coach tends to familaris his subordinates with his own
work habits and beliefs, even though these may be faulty.
The training atmosphere is not available in this method.
12.14
ExecutiveManagement D
Developmer
possess general knowledge. as everv organisation is influenced and affected by
environments. He should have general knowledge about the economic. political,the exter
international environment of the countrv.
General knowledge can be acquired with the help of the following methods :
legal
1. Special Courses. The everutives can attend the workshops or executive ddevelopme
progranmmes organised bv the management institutes, universities, and
courses will help in improving their general knowledge. colleges. The,
2. Special Meetings. Some outside organisationslike consumer forums, chambers of
and commerce, and so many other voluntary organisations, organise special meetines indus
time to time. The executives can attend such meetings to acquire general knowledge
3. Specific Readings. Specific articles published by various journals, specific portions.
important books are provided to the trainees to improve their general knowledge.
T(vj SPECIFIC INDIVIDUAL NEEDS
Some executives may have to be trained in some specific areas due to some specific needs
weaknesses. The methods of training for this aspect are:
1. Special Projects Assignments. Aspecial assignment is a training device under whih :
trainee is assigned a project that is closely related to his job. Sometimes, a number of traine
executives are put together to work on a project directly related to their functional areas
The trainee studies the problems and submits the written recommendations upon it. i
provides him a valuable experience in tackling the problem but would also have the othe
values of educating the trainees the importance of the problem and to understand the
organisational relationship of the problem with different angles. When he works as &
member of the team, he not only acquires knowledge, but also learns how to work with
others having different points of view.
2. Committee Assignments. This method is similar to project assignment. Under this system
an ad-hoc committee is constituted and is assigned a subject related to the business to
discuss and to make recommendations. Through discussions in committee meetings, the
exectives get acquainted with different point of views and alternative methods of problem
solving. They also learn interpersonal skills. Generally, the executives are selected trom
different departments having specialised knowledge in different areas.
3. Conferences. A conference is a group meeting conducted according to an organised plan u
which the members participate in oral discussion of a particular problem and thus, deve
their knowledge and understanding. It is an executive training device for conterest
members and conference leaders. Both learn alot from others' viewpoint and con
their opinions with others. The conference leaders may also learn how to develop
skills to motivate people through direction of discussion. The conferences are
types: (i) Guided or directed conference (ii) Consultative conference and (ii) Pre %
solving conference. For training purposes, guided or directed conterence is useik
modifying
ideally suited in developing conceptual knowledge, reducing dogmatism and
attitudes. The trainee actively participates and his interest in learning is maintained
AxecutiveManagementDevelopment 12.15

ESSENTIAL PRINCIPLES OF EXECUTIVE DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

Anexecutive developnent programme can be made successful by following certain
are discussed as follows :-
specified
principles
principles.These
Individuals differ in ability and speed to learn, interests and other personal characteristics.
1. Training and development programmes must take into consideration these differences.

shhould be a proper job analysis and organisational analysis. The need, depth and
2. There
nature of training should be worked out fromthis analysis.
Suitableincentives must be provided for the effective motivation of trainees.
3.
4. Both the trainer and trainee should take active part in the training activities. Spoon feeding
hy the trainer seldom brings long lasting results.
e Atrainer should also undergo special training for the purpose. He should know the
tochnical details of the job. He should also know how to train ie. to teach.
,Eoedback should be made available to the learner so that he can take steps to improve
himself. There is always opportunity for improvement due to the gap between actual
performance and capacity.

ReviewQuestions
A.Objective Type Questions
1State whether the following statements are TRUE or FALSE:
1. The executive development programme is needed for top level executives.
2. The common belief now-a-days, is that managers are born, not made.
3. Behaviour modelling is based on the social learning theory.
4. Multiple management training is used for the Junior executives.
5. Management games help the trainees in learning from experience.
[Ans.(1) False (2) False (3) True (4) True (5) False]
IL. Fill in the blanks
1. The process of.........and training are often confused.
2. Managerial skills cannot be developed.
3. The basic job of every executive is to take.
4. Managers can be made by giving them proper opportunities tor..
5
.trainingis also called T-Group training.
IAns. (1) development (2) overnight (3) decisions (4) development (5) sensitivityl
M. Multiple choice
questions
Ihe process of training and development are often :
(a) Synonymous (b)Confused
(c) Different