The radiation intensity of an antenna is the power per unit solid angle.

It is represented by
U and is independent to distance from the antenna. Units of radiation intensity are Watts
per steradian (W/Sr).

Directivity and Gain

Ideally, an antenna which radiates energy in all directions equally i.e. an omnidirectional
antenna is called as Isotropic Antenna. This is just a hypothetical situation and an isotropic
antenna doesn’t exist in practice.

But if we consider an isotropic antenna, then its power density will be same at all points on
the sphere of radiation. Hence, the average power of an antenna as a function of radiated
power is

Pavg = Prad / 4πr2 W/m2

The ratio of power density to the average power radiated is known as Directive Gain.

Directivity of an Antenna is a measure of concentration of radiation in the direction of

maximum radiation or the ratio of maximum power density to average power radiated.

Radiation Efficiency and Power Gain

All practical antennas will have Ohmic losses as they are made up of conducting materials
with finite conductivity. Radiation Efficiency is ratio of radiated power to the input power.

ηr = Prad / Pin

Power Gain of an Antenna is the ratio of the power radiated in a direction to the total input
power.

Input Impedance
We should take care to match the input impedance of the antenna to that of the input
transmission line. If the input impedance doesn’t match, then the system degrades over
time due to the reflected power.

Effective Length
The length of an imaginary linear antenna with uniformly distributed current is defined as
the Effective Length of an antenna such that both these antennas have same far field in π/2
plane.
Bandwidth
The bandwidth of antenna is defined as the range of frequencies over which the
characteristics of the antenna are maintained to the specified value. This is because, the
requirements for the characteristics of an antenna like the gain, impedance, standing wave
ratio etc. may change during operation.

Effective Aperture
Generally, the term effective aperture or effective area is associated with the receiving
antenna. Effective Aperture or Area of an antenna is the measure of the ability of an
antenna to extract energy from the electromagnetic wave.

Effective Aperture of an antenna is the ratio of the Power Received at the load to the
average power density produced by the antenna.

Antenna Polarization
The Antenna Polarization refers to the physical orientation of the electromagnetic wave
radiated in a given direction. Polarization of an EM Wave is a time varying direction and
relative magnitude of the electric field vector.

If the direction is not specified, then the polarization in the direction of maximum gain is
considered.

There are other characteristics like Antenna Temperature, beamwidth, beam efficiency etc.
which are also critical.

A slot antenna is a type of antenna that consists of a metal surface with a rectangular or circular slot (cut-
out) in it. When radio frequency (RF) energy is applied to this metal surface, the slot acts as a radiator,
emitting electromagnetic waves.

Key Points:

1. Design:
o Imagine a flat piece of metal, like a sheet, with a slot cut out in the middle. The slot itself is
where the antenna radiates the signal.
2. How It Works:
o When an RF signal is fed to the metal sheet, the current flows around the edges of the slot,
causing the slot to act like a dipole antenna (a simple two-wire antenna). The slot radiates the
signal into the air, just like any other antenna.
3. Advantages:
o Compact and Low Profile: Slot antennas are often used in places where space is limited
because they can be easily integrated into surfaces like the body of an aircraft or a vehicle.
o Directional Radiation: They often radiate in specific directions, which can be useful in
applications where focused signal coverage is needed.
 Common Uses:

o Slot antennas are widely used in radar systems, television broadcasting, and other
communication systems where a low-profile, efficient antenna is needed.

HORN ANTENNA

A horn antenna is a type of antenna that is widely used in applications requiring directional radiation of
electromagnetic waves. It gets its name from its shape, which resembles a horn, and is particularly useful for
high-frequency operations like microwave and radar systems.

Key Points:

1. Design and Structure:

o Shape: A horn antenna typically has a flared metal structure, where the narrow end (the
throat) is connected to a waveguide, and the wide end (the mouth) opens into free space.
o Types of Horns: There are several types, including rectangular, circular, and conical horns,
depending on the shape of the opening.
o Size and Flare Angle: The size and flare angle of the horn determine the antenna's directivity
and impedance characteristics.
2. How It Works:
o The horn acts as a transition between the waveguide (which carries the signal) and free space.
As the electromagnetic waves exit the waveguide and enter the horn, they gradually spread
out, reducing reflections and allowing for efficient radiation into space.
o The shape of the horn controls the directionality and gain of the antenna, with a wider opening
generally providing more directionality.
FREQUENCY MODULATED CW RADAR:

If CW Doppler Radar uses the Frequency Modulation, then that Radar is called
FMCW Doppler Radar or simply, FMCW Radar. It is also called Continuous Wave Frequency
Modulated Radar or CWFM Radar. It measures not only the speed of the target but also
the distance of the target from the Radar.

Block Diagram of FMCW Radar

FMCW Radar is mostly used as Radar Altimeter in order to measure the exact height while
landing the aircraft. The following figure shows the block diagram of FMCW Radar −

FMCW Radar contains two Antennas − transmitting Antenna and receiving Antenna as
shown in the figure. The transmitting Antenna transmits the signal and the receiving
Antenna receives the echo signal.
The block diagram of the FMCW Radar looks similar to the block diagram of CW Radar. It
contains few modified blocks and some other blocks in addition to the blocks that are
present in the block diagram of CW Radar. The function of each block of FMCW Radar is
mentioned below.

 FM Modulator − It produces a Frequency Modulated (FM) signal having variable

frequency, fo(t)fo(t) and it is applied to the FM transmitter.
 FM Transmitter − It transmits the FM signal with the help of transmitting Antenna.
The output of FM Transmitter is also connected to Mixer-I.
 Local Oscillator − In general, Local Oscillator is used to produce an RF signal. But,
here it is used to produce a signal having an Intermediate Frequency, fIFfIF. The
output of Local Oscillator is connected to both Mixer-I and Balanced Detector.
 Mixer-I − Mixer can produce both sum and difference of the frequencies that are
applied to it. The signals having frequencies of fo(t)fo(t) and fIFfIF are applied to
Mixer-I. So, the Mixer-I will produce the output having frequency
either fo(t)+fIFfo(t)+fIF or fo(t)−fIFfo(t)−fIF.
 Side Band Filter − It allows only one side band frequencies, i.e., either upper side
band frequencies or lower side band frequencies. The side band filter shown in the
figure produces only lower side band frequency. i.e., fo(t)−fIFfo(t)−fIF.
 Mixer-II − Mixer can produce both sum and difference of the frequencies that are
applied to it. The signals having frequencies of fo(t)−fIFfo(t)−fIF and fo(t−T)fo(t−T) are
applied to Mixer-II. So, the Mixer-II will produce the output having frequency
either fo(t−T)+fo(t)−fIFfo(t−T)+fo(t)−fIF or fo(t−T)−fo(t)+fIFfo(t−T)−fo(t)+fIF.
 IF Amplifier − IF amplifier amplifies the Intermediate Frequency (IF) signal. The IF
amplifier shown in the figure amplifies the signal having frequency
of fo(t−T)−fo(t)+fIFfo(t−T)−fo(t)+fIF. This amplified signal is applied as an input to the
Balanced detector.
 Balanced Detector − It is used to produce the output signal having frequency
of fo(t−T)−fo(t)fo(t−T)−fo(t) from the applied two input signals, which are having
frequencies of fo(t−T)−fo(t)+fIFfo(t−T)−fo(t)+fIF and fIFfIF. The output of Balanced
detector is applied as an input to Low Frequency Amplifier.
 Low Frequency Amplifier − It amplifies the output of Balanced detector to the required
level. The output of Low Frequency Amplifier is applied to both switched frequency
counter and average frequency counter.
 Switched Frequency Counter − It is useful for getting the value of Doppler velocity.
 Average Frequency Counter − It is useful for getting the value of Range.
What is Yagi-Uda Antenna?
The Yagi antenna is also called the Yagi-Uda antenna. It is a type of antenna which is
used to catch TV signals and radio waves. It was made by Japanese scientists
Hidetsugu Yagi and Shintaro Uda in the 1920s.
This antenna has a center part that sends and receives signals, surrounded by other
parts placed in a certain way. These extra parts help the antenna work better by
spacing everything out correctly. Because of this design, the antenna is really good at
grabbing signals from one direction, but not as good at getting signals from other
directions. People often use this antenna to make TV signals better and for talking on
ham radios.
Components of Yagi-Uda Antenna
 Driven Element: In the Yagi-Uda antenna, the driven element is vital for signal
transmission and reception. It interacts with electromagnetic waves, facilitating
effective communication.
 Reflector: Strategically placed behind the driven element, the reflector significantly
enhances the antenna’s performance. It acts passively, redirecting and focusing
incoming signals toward the driven element to improve reception.
 Directors: Positioned in front of the driven element, directors are additional
elements that collaborate to enhance the antenna’s directional capabilities. By
carefully adjusting the number and spacing of directors, the antenna efficiently
amplifies signals in the desired direction, resulting in improved reception quality.

Yagi-uda-antenna

Yagi Uda Antenna Working & Construction

To construct a Yagi-Uda antenna, several components come together to create an e-
fficient and directional antenna for transmitting or receiving electromagnetic signals.
The central element is called the “boom,” which serves as the framework for mounting
all other parts. Connected to the transmission line is the primary element, known as
the “driven element,” responsible for signal transmission or reception. At the far end of
the antenna is the “reflector,” a longer element that reflects energy towards the
antenna’s radiation pattern. In front of the driven element, there are multiple
strategically placed “directors” with specific lengths and spacings. These directors
assist in directing the antenna’s radiation pattern for optimal performance.
 Yagi Uda Antenna

The Yagi Uda antenna works by improving the reception or transmission of signals in a
direction. It consists of three parts; a driven element, a reflector and directors. When a
signal is received or transmitted the driven element, which is connected to the
transmission line produces a field. The reflector, behind the driven element reflects this
energy forward while the directors in focus and strengthen the signal in a direction. By
spacing and sizing these components a narrow radiation pattern is created, resulting in
increased signal strength and effective capturing or sending of signals in the intended
direction while minimizing interference, from directions.
Characteristics of Yagi-Uda Antenna
The characteristics of Yagi-Uda antennas are:
 Yagi antennas enhance signals in a single direction which makes them effective for
long-distance or areas with weak signals.
 These antennas concentrate on a limited area which makes them suitable for
specific points or distant communication but less effective in all directions.
 Yagi antennas perform well within that range when tuned to a particular frequency
range, but may necessitate other antennas for different frequencies.
Advantages of Yagi-Uda Antenna
The advantages of Yagi-Uda antenna are:
 Yagi-Uda antennas point signals in one direction, reducing interference and making
reception better.
 These antennas make signals stronger, helping with faraway communication and in
places where signals are not very strong.
Disadvantages of Yagi-Uda Antenna
The disadvantages of Yagi-Uda antennas are:
 Yagi antennas work best within a small range of frequencies. This means they
might not do as well with signals outside of that range.
 Long Yagi antennas might be too big when space is tight. In such cases, it could be
better to look at other antenna choices.
Yagi Antenna Design
To design a Yagi-Uda antenna effectively, specific design specifications should be
adhered to:
Component Length range

Driven Element 0.458λ to 0.5λ

Reflector 0.55λ to 0.58λ

 Director 1 (0.45λ)
Directors  Director 2 (0.40λ)
 Director 3 (0.35λ)

Spacing between Directors 0.2λ

Reflector to Dipole Spacing 0.35λ

Dipole to Director Spacing 0.125λ

By following these specified dimensions, one can successfully design a Yagi-Uda

antenna.

Yagi Antenna
Radiation Format of Yagi Antenna
The Yagi antenna possesses a radiation pattern that exhibits a level of focus and
directionality. This exceptional characteristic allows it to efficiently transmit or receive
signals in a direction while minimizing any interference, from other directions. The
primary component of the radiation pattern, known as the ” lobe ” corresponds to the
direction in which the antenna is precisely aimed making it highly effective in that
direction.
Nevertheless within the pattern there are lobes at the back and sides. One notable
lobe situated at the rear is referred to as the ” lobe,” which arises due, to the
functioning of the reflector element.

Radiation Format

To enhance the performance of the Yagi antenna, you have the option to customize
the length and spacing of its reflector and other components. This adjustment can e-
ither minimize radiation in the opposite direction or amplify the antenna’s forward gain.
However, there is no universal solution for all scenarios. Depending on your specific
requirements and application, you may need to select between improving the front-to-
back ratio or achieving higher forward gain.