1ST TERM SCHEME OF WORK SS 3 FOODS AND NUTRITION

1. Consumer Education
- Meaning of Consumer Education – principles of consumer education, rights of a consumer,
importance of consumer education.
- Consumer Agents – Marketers – definition and types e.g. distributors, hawkers, sales agents,
network, wholesalers and retailers
- Government Agencies and their regulations – e.g. World Food Agencies; regulations and
functions, Federal and state agencies; functions and regulations

2. Food Budgeting
- Meaning of Food budgeting
- Types of budgeting (primary and secondary budget)
- Factors influencing food budgeting – shopping list, petty cash, food cost
- Making a price list and preparing a food budget considering the nutritional need of the family

3. Choice and Storage of Food Stuff

- Storage Equipment
- Storage of perishable and non-perishable foods
- Factors affecting selection
- Definition of some common terms – Bulk purchasing, shopping list, market survey, cost
analysis, price list, food list, commercial foods, homemade foods, brand names, net weight,
gross weight

4. ICPC

- Definition and functions of ICPC

- Penalties for such offences
Misappropriation of Family food budget e.g. diversion of food budget to personal usage

5. Nutritional Needs of the Family

- Meaning of Nutritional needs
- Nutritional needs of different people e.g. Infants and Children, Adolescents, Adults and the
Aged, Pregnant and Lactating women
- Factor affecting meal planning
- Planning of adequate diet
- Test interpretation
- Practical

6. Special Diets
- Meaning of Vegetarian, Invalid, Convalescent, Overweight, Underweight, HIV/AIDs
- Vegetarian diets – strict vegetarian, lacto vegetarian, lacto-ovo vegetarian.
- invalid and convalescent diets

7. The Art of Entertaining

- Being a good host/hostess – planning ahead, issuing invitations, receiving guests
- Table Setting – Formal and Informal table setting
- Serving of Foods – waiting at table, cleaning after meals
- Being a good guest – response to invitation, table manners,
- Practical

8. Cultural Food Habits

- Meaning of Food habits and taboos
- Food Habits – Facts and Fallacies, Taboos
- Traditional and Foreign dishes e.g. Nigerian, Indian, American, Chinese and other African
Countries
- Practical

9. Food for Special Occasions

- Special Occasions – weddings, thanksgiving, birthdays, naming ceremonies, house warming
etc.
- Special Foods – Fried rice, jollof rice, pounded yam/soup, moi-moi, semovita/soup,
- Practical

10. Beverages
- Types of beverages – Alcoholic and Non-alcoholic (alcoholic, e.g. beer, wine etc. non-alcoholic
e.g. coffee, tea, cocoa drink, milk and egg drink, fruit juices and drinks
- Nutritional Values of the drinks

11. Revision

12. Examination
 CONSUMER EDUCATION

A consumer is one that buys goods and services for the sole purpose of making use of them. Consumer
Education therefore is the process of enlightening the public about their rights as far as food purchases
are concerned. It is aimed at educating the public about the various laws that govern the manufacture
and sales of foods, the standards that manufactured foods must attain and the sanitary practices that
must be followed in all the stages of food handling until its final consumption. It is the intention of
consumer education to protect both the health and pocket of consumers.

CONSUMER AGENTS

These are the people involved in the distribution network of goods and services. They include the
following: -

a. Manufacturers – these are the people that produce goods for the consumers.
b. Major distributors – these are people who buy in large quantities and the sell to the wholesalers
also known as sub-distributors
c. Wholesalers – they buy goods from major distributors or directly from the manufacturers and
then sell to the retailers
d. Retailers – these are the ones that buy from the wholesalers and then sell in small quantities to
the consumers
e. Consumers – these are the final people that buy goods and services for the sole purpose of
making use of them. Without the consumers, the other agents will not be able to dispose of
their goods and hence there will be no production. Both the manufacturers, wholesalers and
retailers have the interest of the consumer in mind and they should listen to their complaints
and comments.

DISTRIBUTION NETWORK

The food passes through many stages until it eventually gets to the final consumer starting from the
manufacturers to the distributors, both sub and major distributors (wholesalers) down to the sellers or
retailers and then to the consumer.

Sometimes, it will move from the manufactures to the sales agents and then straight to the consumers.
It can also move from retailers down to the street hawkers before it gets to the consumers.

MANUFACTURERES ------- MAJOR DISTRIBUTORS ------ WHOLESALERS ------ RETAILERS ----- CONSUMERS
 DEFINITION OF TERMS

1. B ADULTERATION: This is the practice of using inferior or bad raw materials in the production
of a product with a view of maximizing the profit
2. MISBRANDMENT: This is the process of using wrong labelling with a view of deceiving the
consumer. It also includes a situation whereby the label contains false information about the
product or the manufacturer.
3. FOOD STANDARDS: These are the body or rules and regulations governing the manufacture and
sale of food items in any given country or locality
4. HIRE PURCHASE: This is an agreement between a buyer and a seller where a buyer buys a
product or goods and deposit a certain amount of money and the balance is expected to be paid
on a regular basis until it is liquidated. The goods do not belong to the buyer until he completes
the payment. The goods can be seized from the buyer if he defaults in the installmental
payment.
5. CREDIT PURCHASE: Here, a part of the cost of the product or good is paid with the promise that
the balance will be paid later either at once or in piece meal. The goods belong to the buyer and
are taken away by the buyer immediately.
6. IMPULSE BUYING: This is an act of buying goods by merely seeing them and not out of need. It
is the act of buying things that a not budgeted for.
7. BRAND NAME: This is the name used to identify a commercial product or service which may or
may not be registered as a trade mark
8. BULK PURCHASING: Buying of goods and services in large quantities
9. PIECE MEAL PURCHASE: Buying of goods and services in small quantities

PRINCIPLES OF CONSUMER EDUCATION

There are varieties of new products with different brand names but of the same with different brand
names but of the same basic items in the market. This gives the consumer many alternatives to which he
knows little about. So for a consumer to get the best value for his money, he should not rush at buying
goods but gives due consideration to the following;

1. The basic items needed at home

2. Food in season
3. Buying in bulk - saves money and time
4. When buying convenience foods, always read the label carefully
5. Do not buy your goods in one place, compare prices and buy where it is cheaper
 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF CONSUMER EDUCATION

1. To enlighten the public (consumers) about their rights as far as purchases of goods are
concerned
2. To educate the public about various laws governing the manufacture and sale of goods and
services, the standard the manufactures must comply with and sanitary practice that will be
followed in food handling at all stages until final consumption
3. To create awareness about activities of various agencies that work towards protecting the safety
of food and all edible consumables

IMPORTANCE OF CONSUMER EDUCATION

- It enables the consumer to know his/her rights

- It helps the consumer to access and interpret available information about the goods and
services he/she is buying. E.g. expiring dates, weights, brand name etc.
- It enables the consumer to know how and where to buy the goods and services needed
- It enables the consumer to obtain the best value for his money
- It enables the consumer to eliminate wastes in consumption
- It can also safeguard the consumer from dangerous and inferior goods and services and other
unfair selling practices

THE RIGHTS OF THE CONSUMER

The consumer has the following rights: -

- The right to safety – whatever goods and services made available to the consumer should be
safe for consumption
- The right to be educated and informed about the goods and services he is paying for – The
consumer be educated and informed about issues relating to what he is consuming, appropriate
information should be provided by the manufacturer
- The right to choose what he wants – he should not be forced to accept undesirable goods and
services
- The right to speak and be heard – the consumer should be allowed to express his/her views
about the available goods and services
- The right to be satisfied with whatever goods and services made available to him/her
- The right to seek for redress
- The right to buy from any shop of his choice
- The right to bargain
- The right to demand for demonstration of the use of the equipment
- The right to a healthy environment
- The right to legal protection
- The right to educate a seller or producer
 GOVRNMENT AGENCIES REGULATIONS

These are various government bodies that are charged with the formulation of food standards and laws,
their enforcement and implementation. Examples of government agencies are: -

1. Standard organization of Nigeria (SON)

2. National Agency for Foods and Drugs Administration and Control (NAFDAC)
3. Food and Drug administration Agency (FDA)
4. Codex Alimentarious Commission (World Food Agency)

STANDARD ORGANISATION OF NIGERIA (SON)

This is division of the Federal Ministry of Trade and Industries set up in the year 1970

Functions:

1. To formulate standards for the products produced within and those imported into the country
2. To design, establish and approve standards of products in respect of weight and measures,
commodities, commodities, structures and processes of certification in commerce and industry
3. To standardize methods and products of industries throughout the country
4. To provide necessary measures for quality control
5. To ensure that the manufacturers adhere to government policy and standardization

NATIONAL AGENCY FOR FOODS AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION AND CONTROL

Its functions are to: -

1. Prohibit the sale of any food prepared under unsanitary condition

2. Check fake advertising of foods and drugs
3. Ensure that manufacturers maintain approved standards with respect to foods and drugs
4. Monitor the activities of food establishments such as hotels, restaurants, cold rooms, markets,
foods and drugs manufacturing companies and enforce proper environmental and personal
hygiene
5. Prohibit the sale of goods that are poisonous or unfit for human consumption

CODEX ALIMENTRIOU COMMISSION

This is a World Organization that that controls the standard of foods and drugs worldwide. All countries
are expected to be members of this body. The commission is jointly sponsored by the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO) and World Health Organization (WHO)
 BUDGETING

Budgeting is the act of planning how to spend the net income in such a way that the person concerned
will not run into any financial crisis or embarrassment before the next income. It is a process whereby all
the expenses to be made are listed and cost known. Good budgeting leads to wise management or use
of family income while poor budgeting leads to wasteful expenditure of income.

Family budget is necessary if family needs are to be met. A family’s needs are usually many but the
income or resource is often limited, it is therefore necessary that each person knows how to make good
budget. Prudent management of the home entails the special skills of balancing income and
expenditure.

Income can be grouped into two: - Gross Income and Net Income.

a. The Gross Income is the sum total of the money from the various sources without any
deductions. That is, the total amount of money from a person’s income.
b. The Net Income is the actual amount of money received after all the compulsory deductions
such as tax, pension, etc. have been made from the gross income. Thus, the net income is
always smaller than the gross income. It is the net income that is available for spending.

Budgeting therefore is the art of planning how the net income will be spent in such a way that the
individual concerned will not run into any financial embarrassment before the next income. Expenditure
as well is the amount of money spent on the goods and services which the family needs

FAMILY NEEDS

Family needs are those things that the family members are so willing to spend their income on. Family
budget is made on family needs and these needs are divided into two main classes: - Primary and
Secondary Needs.

Primary Needs: These are the very important needs which are important for good health and survival.
They are those needs which the family cannot do without them and they are food, clothing and shelter.

Secondary Needs: These are the needs which the family can do without though they are desirable. The
secondary needs vary with families. A high income family can afford many secondary needs while a low
income family may not. Example of secondary needs are: - family cars, education, entertainment,
savings, insurance, recreation, personal allowance etc.
 DEFINITION OF SOME COMMON TERMS

Price List – This is the current prices for different goods and services on sale

Food List – This is the list of foods that are alike which are grouped together. i.e. a categorically-
organized list of foods.

Shopping List – This is the list items to be bought or the list of purchase to be made.

Homemade Foods – These are foods prepared at home by one’s own effort for family consumption

Commercial Foods – This generally refers to any cooking or food production that happens on a large
scale where the product is intended to be sold. E.g. hotels, canteens, restaurants, cafeterias etc.

Market Survey – This is the research and analysis of the market for a particular product or service which
also includes the investigation into customer inclinations

Cost Analysis – this the act of breaking down a cost summary into its constituents and studying and
reporting on each factor

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN MAKING BUDGET

1. The family income – that is the net income available

2. Family needs – these determine the specific goods and services which will be budgeted for
3. Family size – the number of people in the family including their ages and sexes
4. Family value – value is the worth placed on something. Every family has a set of values and
these values influence the choice which the family makes among alternatives for e.g. a family
that values education more than luxury might spend more money on education rather than on
cars
5. The season of the year – some goods especially foodstuffs are plenty at certain seasons of the
year and scarce at other seasons
6. Locality – this is the area where the family lives and it will influence their family budget in
different ways e.g. distance to school, place of work, market etc. and therefore the amount of
money spent on transport
7. Inflation – this is the continuous upward movement in general price level, when this occurs, the
prices of goods and services become high
 BENEFITS OF FAMILY BUDGET

1. It gives direction as to how the family income is to be spent

2. It helps the family to spend their income wisely
3. It helps the family to form the habit of saving
4. It helps to prevent impulse buying
5. It helps to keep the family out of debt
6. It promotes peace in the homes as it helps to limit most family figures over money

A BUDGET FOR AN IMAGINARY FAMILY

A budget for a family that has a net income of Fifty Thousand Naira (#50,000) only: -

FAMILY NEEDS FAMILY INCOME BUDGETED AMOUNT (#)

(%)

FOOD 30% 15,000

SHELTER 25% 12,500

CLOTHING 5% 2,500

HEALTH 10% 5,000

EDUCATION 12% 6,000

TRANSPORTATION 8% 4,000

ALLOWANCE 5% 2,500

SAVINGS 5% 2,500

TOTAL 100% #50,000

 FOOD BUDGETING

Food budgeting is the process of planning how the money allocated to food in the family budget is to be
spent. This will enable the house wife to reduce the family expenditure on food and also provide a
balanced menu for the family. A food budget therefore is the includes the list of all the food items to be
purchased and their cost implication.

Example of a food budget using the imaginary family budget and the money allocated to food which is
Fifteen Thousand Naira (15,000)

FOOD ITEMS FOOD ITEM BUDGETED (%) AMOUNT (#)

RICE 24% 3,600

GARRI 9% 1,350

BEANS 8.4% 1,260

SPAGHETTI 3.2 % 480

PROVISIONS 3.4% 510

PALM OIL 2.4% 360

SALT 1.2 % 180

SEASONING CUBES 2.4% 360

GAS 14% 2,100

YAMS 10% 1,500

VEGETABLE OIL 10% 1,500

MEAT 6% 900

FISH 6% 900

TOTAL 100% #15,000

Food budget varies with different families in terms of the food items because there are different types
of foods that are not consumed by different people in different parts of the world, Nigeria inclusive.
Food budgeting prevents impulse buying and wastage but allows for preparation of balanced meal for
the family.
 FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHE MAKING A FOOD BUDGET

1. The amount allocated for food in the family budget

2. The taste of the various members of the family
3. The size of the family
4. Storage facilities available
5. The type of food in season
6. The price of commodities in the market
7. The nutritional requirements of the family members
8. The keeping quality of the food stuffs

A strict adherence to the above factors will enable the housewife keep food expenditure within the
family budget.

BULK PURCHASING

Bulk purchasing or bulk buying is the practice of buying goods (including food) in large quantities with a
view to storing them at home. It involves a list of items to be bought as this will prevent skipping some
items and over spending on others. After compiling the list, a market survey is then carried out so as to
determine the relative prices of the goods with a view of determining the cheapest in the market.

Advantages of bulk buying/purchasing

- It is cheaper than buying in peace meal

- It makes food stuffs readily available in the house which helps the home maker to take care of
emergency situations
- It allows for good menu planning
- It protects the house wife from market price fluctuations
- It saves time and money
- It also prevents impulse buying

Disadvantages of bulk buying/purchasing

- Food spoilage is likely to occur when there is no proper storage facility

- It may result to poor management and wastage of food stuff
Factors to consider when embarking on bulk purchasing

- The storage facilities available

- The nature of the food stuff
- Food in season
- Size of the family
- Amount of money available
- The rate of consumption of the food items
- Family’s likes and dislikes
- Compare prices
- Check to find out where to get the items to buy and cheaper too
- Availability and cost of transportation

Piece meal purchasing is also another method of buying that involves buying goods in small quantities
at a time.

CHOICE OF STORAGE EQUIPMENT

Storage is the act of or method of storing something for future use. Food storage therefore is the act of
keeping both raw and cooked foods in appropriate condition for future use without any entry or
interference of microorganisms. The choice of storage and the equipment depends on the type of food
to be stored.

CLASSIFICATION OF FOODS

Foods can be classified into three major groups: -

a. Perishable Foods or High moisture Foods - These are the foods that begin to spoil almost
immediately unless they are preserved in some ways because of their high water content. E.g.
milk, meat, fish, fruits and vegetables
b. Semi-perishable Foods or Intermediate moisture Foods – These are foods which can be kept for
some time before going bad because their water content is low. E.g. tubers and root vegetables
c. Non-perishable Foods or Low moisture Foods – These are foods that can be kept for a
reasonably long period without getting spoilt due to their low moisture or water content. E.g.
nuts, dried legumes and cereals.

STORAGE EQUIPMENT

Freezers/Refrigerators – they are used for storing perishable foods such as meat, fish, fruits and
vegetable and also cooked foods
Rhombus – This is a large flask shaped or cylindrical container having the capacity of storing up to 200kg
of grains depending on the size.

Jute Bags – They are used to store threshed and shelled grains and legumes. The storage environment
must be kept clean at all times to prevent the attack from insects, pests and rodents.

Silos – This is a common storage method that is practiced in many African countries at traditional level.
They can be in form of huts, cribs, granaries, underneath pit etc. and is used for the storage of grains
and legumes.

Barns – This method is used for storage of yams. This involves the use of aa small hut built either near
the compound house or on the farm inside which yams are arranged on shelves. The yams are then
protected from the rays of the sun by covering the structure with plantain leaves

INDEPENDENT CORRUPT PRSCTICES COMMISSION – (ICPC)

The acronym ICPC stands for Independent corrupt practices commission. It is an organization set up by
the Nigerian government that deals with corrupt practices and other related offences committed in
Nigeria by the people.

FUNCTIONS OF ICPC

Section 6 of the act confers three main responsibilities on ICPC and they are: -

- To receive and investigate reports of corruptions and inappropriate cases and prosecute the
offender
- To examine, review and enforce the correction of corruption prone systems and procedure of
public bodies with a view to eliminating corruption in public life
- Educating and enlightening the public on and against corruption and related offenses with a
view to enlisting and fostering public support for the fight against corruption

PENALTIES FOR SUCH OFFENSES

1. Acceptance of gratification by an official either directly or through an agent. – 7years Jail term
2. Corrupt offer to public officers – 7years Jail term
3. Corrupt demand by persons – 7years Jail term
4. Fraudulent acquisition of property – 7years Jail term
5. Fraudulent receipt of property; where the fraudulent receipt is related to postal matter, money
of valuable security 3years – 7years Jail term
6. Deliberate frustration of investigation by the commission – 7years Jail term
7. Making false statement or returns – 7years Jail term
8. Gratification by and through agents 5yeats Jail term
 9. Offer and acceptance of gratification to and by a public officer as an inducement or reward -
7years Jail term with hard labour
10. Offence of using office or position to gratify or confer unfair advantage on oneself, relation or
association – 5years Jail term
11. Bribery in relation to auction transactions – 3years Jail term and fine of the current price of the
property
12. (1&2) Bribery for giving assistance e.g. in regards to contract – 7years Jail term or =N=1m fine
13. Making false petitions – 10years Jail term and =N=100,000
14. Making false statements which intends to mislead – 2years Jail term and / or =N=100,000fine
15. Failure to report bribery transactions – 2years Jail term and or =N=100,000 fine
16. The transfer or spending of money meant for a particular project or service on another project –
1year Jail term or =N=50,000fine

NUTRITIONAL NEEDS OF PEOPLE IN DIFFERENT PHYSIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS

Nutritional requirements of human beings vary according to their physiological stage. The nutritional
requirement of the infant for example is different from that of a pregnant woman. Apart from the
physiological stage, there are other factors that affect the nutritional requirements of human beings,
some of which are occupation, climate, sex Male or Female), likes and dislikes etc. however, we shall be
concerned with the nutritional needs of human begins as affected by the physiological stage or age.

Infants: Infancy covers the period from birth to one year. At this stage, the rate of growth is very high
and the infants are also more susceptible to infections. Infants therefore, require foods necessary for
optimum growth and development. They need a balanced diet prepared in an easily digestible form,
served attractively and in small portion.

The Toddler: A toddler is a child of 1 – 2 years of age. At this period, the child walks with short feeble
steps. He/she is now able to share in most of the dishes served to the family but requires relatively more
protein of good quality such as milk, meat, fish, liver, soya beans etc. than adult. They also require lots
of Vitamins especially Vitamins A, C and D and also good cereals and their products for energy.

The Adolescents: Adolescent is the phase of life between childhood and adulthood, from ages 10 to 19.
It is a unique stage of human development and an important time for laying the foundation of good
health. At this stage, growth spurt is experienced and the individual is usually engaged in energy
demanding activities such as sports, therefore, they need food rich in proteins and carbohydrates as a
result f the increased energy needed. In other words, adolescents usually experience rapid physical,
cognitive and psychosocial growth.

The Adults and The Aged: An adult is a person who has reached maturity and is grown in size and
strength. Since they are grown up persons, their nutritional needs are not as high as that of both the
infants and adolescents. However, they need nutrients for maintenance of the worn-out body tissues.
There is still the need for them to be on a balanced diet to avoid wasting of muscles.

Pregnant Women /Lactating Mothers: A pregnant woman is a woman who is expecting a baby. The
pregnant woman needs extra nutrients in addition to the balanced diet she requires as an adult, this is
because she has to provide for the nutritional needs of the developing child in her womb. A pregnant
woman should eat good balanced meals in order to produce a healthy normal baby. If the pregnant
woman’s diet is inadequate, the baby will develop at the expense of the mother. Thus, the mother will
be the first to show signs of deficiency and in severe case of malnutrition, during pregnancy, the baby
also shows signs of deficiency.

A lactating mother is one who is breastfeeding a baby. In order to produce enough milk for the baby, she
secrets 600ml of milk daily. A lactating mother requires additional nutrients also. The same dietary
guideline which are applied during pregnancy should also be applied during lactation.

Invalids and Convalescents:

An invalid is someone who is sick and is still in bed, while a convalescent is someone who is recovering
from an illness. A convalescent is no longer sick but in the process of gradual recovery after illness. Such
people because of the dictate of their ailment and dull appetite, they require special types of diet to
furnish their needed nutrients. In preparing meals for the invalid and convalescent, the following factors
must be considered: -

- Obey the doctor’s advice

- Choose easily digestible foods and avoid oily and fatty foods
- Use appropriate cooking methods that will enhance digestion of food
- Choose foods that will supply the necessary nourishment
- Their meals must be well balanced

MEAL PLANNING

Planning meals is a vital aspect of foods and nutrition because it is important to eat the right types of
food for the proper function of our body tissues. The food we eat must therefore be well planned to
provide as much varieties as possible.

Meal planning therefore is the act of planning the food the family members will eat. The food we eat are
divided into three groups: -

a. The body builders e.g. proteins

b. The energy givers e.g. carbohydrates and fats and oils
c. The body protectors e.g. vitamins and minerals

When planning the family meals, food from each of these groups must be provided.
 FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN PLANNING MEALS FOR THEFAMILY

When planning a meal, the most important factor to put into consideration is the knowledge of the food
value. Other factors include: -

- Types of food in season – adequacy and availability

- Health condition of the family members
- The meal must contain all the necessary food nutrients
- Composition and nutritional needs of the different family members
- Cooking methods chosen
- Cooking skills of the home maker
- Cooking facilities available
- Occupation of the family members
- Money available – family income
- Personal likes and dislikes of the
- Serve meals as attractively as possible
- The keeping quality of the food
- Avoid monotony – vary the foods to prevent monotony
- Quality of food
- Period when the food will be consumed

When planning meals, varieties should be introduced into the meals and adequate fruits and vegetables
should be included. In Nigeria today, three types of meals are recognized and they are: -

a. Breakfast
b. Lunch
c. Dinner/supper

VEGETARIANS

Vegetarians are those who do not animal flesh or fish for food but rather they feed on
vegetables.

VARIOUS TYPES OF VEGETARIANS – There are basically three types of vegetarians and they
are: - Strict vegetarians, Lacto vegetarian and Lacto-ovo vegetarians.

1. Strict Vegetarians – These group of vegetarians are also known as vegans. They do not
eat the flesh of animals, fish, poultry as well as all the animal products and dairy
products including milk and milk products. They only feed on vegetables.
 2. Lacto vegetarians – These are the people who do not the flesh of animals, fish, poultry
or egg but they take milk and milk products together with vegetables.
3. Lacto-ovo vegetarians – These people do not eat flesh of animals and fish or poultry but
they take milk and milk products as well as eggs in addition to vegetables which they
consume in generous amount.

It is easier to plan a balanced meal for Lacto and Lacto-ovo vegetarians because of the inclusion
of milk, eggs and their products respectively to their menu. But it is very difficult to plan a
balanced meal for a vegan or strict vegetarian since vegans depend solely on plant foods. Their
diets may lack some of the essential amino acids and vitamins.

Suggested Menu for Vegetarians

1. Boiled yam or plantain

Vegetable stew (with or without egg)
Rice pudding

2. Fried plantain
Beans
Vegetable stew or sauce

3. Jollof Rice/Beans
Fried plantain
Vegetable salad/fruit salad

THE ART OF ENTERTAINING

Entertainment in this context refers to hosting of guess in terms of food services during
ceremonies like weddings, birthdays parties, house warming parties, child dedication parties
etc. when such an occasion arises, there must be guests and hosts/hostesses. A host/hostess is
a male or a female who receives guests while a guest is someone who is invited to come and
share in the joy and happiness of the occasion. The success of the occasion is the joint
responsibility of both the host and the guest.
 BEING A GOOD HOST/HOSTESS

A good host or hostess must make sure that his guests are well satisfied. Determining the
following factors will help a host to ensure the satisfaction of his guests: -

1. The number of guests to be invited

2. The type of food and drink to be served
3. The nature of the party e.g. dinner, buffet or cocktail
4. Where to hold the party e.g. at home, garden, hotel, hall etc.
5. The nature of the invitation; a formal invitation with an invitation card or an informal or
oral invitation
6. Facilities available
7. Foods in season
8. The age of the invitees
9. Time of the party and duration
10. Security measures available

QUALITIES OF A GOOD GUEST

- He should be prompt
- He should respond to the invitation either by accepting the invitation or excusing
himself formally
- He should not distract other guests and the host when he arrives late
- He should apologise to the host for being late if there is an opportunity
- He should observe the directives of the waiter/waitress
- He should respect the arrangements of seats and tables and other outlays for the
occasion
- He should exhibit good table manners
- He should appreciate the host no matter how bad the food is.

ISSUING OF INVITATION

After the initial planning, host sends out the invitation cards to the guests and stays around to
receive and welcome them on that day.

Invitations for ceremonies could be formal or informal depending on the host and the type of
occasion.
 FORMAL INVITATION

This is used for ceremonies such as weddings, house warmings, ordinations, birthdays,
launchings etc. below are examples of a formal invitation.

Mr. & Mrs. Adegoke Adewale

Requests the pleasure of the company of Mr. & Mrs. …………………………………. at

A Dinner on Friday 3rd November, 2023 at 6.00pm

R.S.V.P

Bose Adewale (08099787651)

INFORMAL INVITATION

This is done by giving out an informal note or oral invitation or text message to some occasions
such as New yam festivals, Child’s birthday celebration, coronation of traditional rulers,
religious crusades, etc.

POINTS TO CONSIDER WHEN GIVING OUT INVITATIONS

- The invitation should be in keeping with the nature of the event e.g. a formal invitation
for a formal dinner or wedding
- An invitation should reach the invitees at least 2weeks before the occasion. If the
invitation is given too early, it might escape one’s mind
- An invitation should be designed to attract one’s attention so that the invitee can read
thoroughly and capture the date, venue and time
- Dress code should be indicated where necessary and at times, colour is even specified.

TABLE SETTING

Table setting involves the simple layout of the table for eating in such a way that all the eating
materials are provided in their correct places
 FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN SETTING A TABLE

1. The cleanliness of the cutlery, table cloth and table mats as well as the surroundings
2. The number of people to take the meal
3. The number of dishes or courses to be served
4. The type of party

TYPES OF TABLE SETTING

There are two types of table setting and they are: - Formal and informal table setting.

Formal Table setting

This is required for formal dinner and it is very popular with standard hotels. It is often made up
of three or more course meals. The individual cutlery and plates are provided. It also involves
the services of a waiter or waitress or even self-service and tables are normally set or laid
before the arrival of guests. Formal table setting therefore requires more materials

Informal Table Setting

This is mostly common for family meals. No protocol is observed before eating. Here, only the
very important cutlery is required. Table may or may not be laid beforehand and food could be
served on tray

MATERIALS FOR TABLE SETTING

1. Table linen (table cloth & napkin)

2. Table mats
3. Cutlery – spoons, forks and knives
4. Side plate
5. Tumblers and goblets (wine glass)
6. Salt and pepper cruet
7. Flowers and vases for decoration

RULES FOR TABLE SETTING

1. Arrange the cutlery in order of use
2. Forks are placed on the left hand side while knives and spoons are placed on the right
hand side
3. The edges of the cutlery should be about an inch from the edge of the table
 4. The bowels of spoons and prongs of fork should be turned up and the sharp edge of the
knife turned towards the plate
5. Tumblers and wine glasses should be turned up and drinks should not be poured into
them before the arrival of the guests
6. Serviette should be nicely folded and put into a serviette ring or in a side plate
7. The curette set is placed at the corner or center of the table within easy reach of the
guests
8. A flower vase may be placed at the center of the table or at the end. It should not be too
high to enable guests see one another easily

TABLE MANNERS

This is the general behavior of guests at table when eating. The following are the commonly accepted
table manners: -

1. Guests should be introduced to each other before they are asked to sit at the table
2. All ladies should sit down first before the gentlemen. As a rule, guests should sit and rise from
the left hand side of the chair at the table. Do not move the chair unless it is necessary and do
not begin conversation until the grace is said or you see that it is not going to be said
3. Unfold the serviette or table napkin and spread it on the lap. Except while eating, the hands
should remain on the lap
4. Avoid loud talking or talking while having food in your mouth. Do not monopolize the
conversation so that others will have their chance to talk and also talk in a low tone for people
to hear each other
5. Start eating only when those seated adjacent to you have been served. Eat what you are
provided with at the table and politely let the host know when you do not eat that particular
food
6. Avoid making noise with the cutlery or mouth no matter how tasty the food is. Only the fork
goes inside the mouth when eating with a knife and a fork
7. Pass food with the right hand and offer food with the left hand turned towards the receiver
8. Meat should be cut into small convenient pieces before eating while biscuits and breads should
be picked up with the fingers
9. Indicate that you have finished eating by putting the cutlery used in the middle of the plate and
the napkin loosely on the table at the left hand side of the plate and never on the chair
10. Do not comment on the badly prepared food except on good ones. Avoid licking fingers at all
times and ask for desired food or article far from you instead of stretching hands across the
table over other people’s food
 FOOD SERVICE

Food service is the way and manner in which food is dished out and served to guests so that it looks
appetizing for the guest to enjoy. There are two types of Food Service and they are: -

Formal service and Informal service.

FORMAL FOOD SERVICE

Formal food service is not often used in homes but mainly used during formal dinner and luncheons. It is
mainly used by hotels and restaurants. In his style of food service (formal service) , all the food is served
from the kitchen and requires adequate waiter/waitress service. A formal meal should not be
undertaken without adequate well trained help. At least one waiter or waitress is needed for every six
guests. The only type of formal service is Russian or continental service.

FUNCTIONS OF THE WAITER OR WAITRESS

1. To see that the service of the meal is orderly, prompt and delightful
2. To make sure that the dinning rom is comfortable
3. To make sure that the food is at proper temperature
4. To attend to any emergency that arises coolly, quickly and quietly

QUALITIES OF A GOOD WAITER/WAITRESS

A waiter/waitress should possess the following qualities: -

1. Always neat
2. Smart and skillful in movement
3. Always cheerful and polite

POINTS TO OBSERVE WHEN SERVING FOOD

1. When removing a dish and placing another at the same time, from left hand side, remove with
the right hand and place with the left hand
2. In other cases, place and remove from left side with the left hand except dishes that that are on
the right hand side of the guest
3. When a guest is to serve himself, offer food from the left side with the left hand
4. In presenting dishes of food, place a hand napkin or serviette on the palm of the palm to protect
it from the heat
 5. The food should be held at a high distance and angle convenient for the person being served
6. Items for serving should be placed conveniently while drinking glasses should not be lifted from
the table when refilling them
7. For informal dinner – Buffet style, the foods and tableware should be arranged in such a way
that guests may serve themselves as they proceed from left round the table.

INFORMAAL SERVICE

Informal service does not require the services of the waiter or any other protocols observed when
serving food as in formal service, there are five types of informal service; Family service, Plate service,
Buffet service, English service and compromise service.

1. Family Service: This is the type of service where the whole meal is placed on the table at one
time and served by the person at the table. It is very common in most homes because it saves
time and labour
2. Plate Service: In this type of service, the food is put on the individual’s plates in the kitchen and
then served to the guests. It is mostly used in weddings, naming ceremonies, , house warming,
traditional marriages etc. here food wastage is always common because some guests may not
finish their portion of food
3. Buffet Service (Serve yourself): In this type of service, guests serve themselves and that’swhy it
is often called, “Do-it-Yourself”. Here, the foods and all the eating utensils are arranged in such a
way that is convenient for the guests to move round and serve themselves. It is very convenient
for entertaining a good number of guests especially where guests cannot be comfortably seated
and when there is no waiter.
4. English Service: In this type of service, all the food is served at table by the host/hostess and
other members of the family. It is a pleasing and a hospitable form of service.
5. Compromise Service: In this type of service, the main dish is served at the table by the host
while other smaller portions are served from the kitchen. A waiter or waitress may be used in
serving

IMPORTANCE OF FOOD SERVICE

1. It prevents food wastage

2. It makes food attractive and appetizing
3. It helps in the digestion of food as courses are served in the order the body requires them
4. It makes food enjoyable
5. It promotes family or social interactions

CULTURAL FOOD HABITS

Habit is an established way of doing things on a regular basis. Food habit therefore, is the attitude and
reactions of individuals towards food on a regular basis. This is based on the social, emotional and
cultural factors in a given community. Food habits could be good or bad. Once food habits are
established, they are not easy to change.

However, before one can change his or her food habit or help others to change theirs, it is important to
appreciate and understand the variations people have in their likes and dislikes and their attitude
towards food. Some people have good food habit because they have been fortunate in their early home
and school environment. Other people through education have been willing to modify their habits

FACTORS INFLUENCING OR AFFECTING FOOD HSBITS

Food habits can be affected by various factors which include the following; -

1. Family upbringing
2. Social interactions
3. Customs and Taboos
4. Weather and climates
5. The type of food produced within the locality
6. Health of the individual
7. Economic status
8. Education
9. Psychological variations
10. Religious beliefs
11. Emotional feelings

FOOD TABOOS

There are different types of food that are not eaten by different people in different parts of the world,
Nigeria inclusive. Usually, such foods are forbidden for one reason or the other. Some may be due to
religious, cultural or other reasons. Such foods therefore become taboo, that is, prohibited for the
particular people concerned. E.g. in some parts of Nigeria, it is a taboo for a pregnant woman to eat
snail, such people believe that the baby when delivered will be salivating profusely if the woman eats
snail during pregnancy.

Food taboos therefore are the foods which are forbidden because of religious or cultural beliefs. Most
food taboos have no scientific basis therefore deprive the person from eating a balanced diet.

FOOD FADS
A ‘Fad’ is a style or custom that many people are interested in for a short time. Therefore, Food Fads are
some practices about food engaged in by people for a relatively short period. Like dress fashions come
and go, so also food fads come and go. It must be emphasized that the mere fact that a food fad is in
practice does not portray it to be nutritionally acceptable or sound. E.g. Fried rice was very popular
some time ago, if you are having a party or ceremony and did not prepare fried rice, people will look
down on such an occasion. These foods fad are practices that tend to boost the social status within the
society. Food fad leads to addiction to certain foods which could be detrimental to the health of an
individual.

FOOD FALLACIES

Food fallacies are wrong opinions about the role of certain food nutrients in the body. The wide spread
fallacies about the role of food nutrients in the body within the country makes nutrition education very
important. Fallacies about food are contributive to the high rate of malnutrition, especially among
children.

Some of these fallacies: -

1. FALLACY: consumption of meat by children promotes the development of worms in them.

FACT: children need meat because it is a good source of first class protein which they need for
proper growth.

2. FALLACY: vegetable oils are less fattening than solid fats

FACT: Both vegetable oils and solid fats are equally high in calories and are both fattening.

From this discussion so far, it will be seen that Food taboos, Food fads and Food fallacies prevent the
consumption of the needed nutrients, therefor, they should be discouraged.
 SS 3 FOODS AND NUTRITION
2ND TERM SCHEME OF WORK

WEEK CONTENT

1. Rechauffee (Leftover cookery)

- Meaning of rechauffee
- use of leftover food in making new dishes
E.g. rechauffee of meat, fish, vegetable
and other foods.
- practical

2. Food Study – Meat

- Types and cuts of meat we use in meal

preparation e.g. beef, veal, mutton, pork,
lamb, goat, game, liver, offal, kidney etc.
- Factors to consider when choosing meat
- Nutritive value of meat
- Methods of cooking meat
- Advantages and disadvantages of each
method
- Practical
3. Food Study – Poultry

- Types of poultry e.g. fowl, turkey, goose,

duck
- Factors to consider when choosing
poultry
- Preparation of poultry for cooking
- Methods of cooking / advantages and
disadvantages of each method
- Practical
4-5 Mock Examination
 RECHAUFFEE (LEFTOVER COOKERY)

Rechauffee is reheating of leftover food with the addition of new ingredients to make new dishes. There
are times when all the foods prepared in the home are not consumed. The unconsumed prepared food
is referred to as leftover food which is usually reheated the following day.it can be preserved for
another round of consumption when reheated and also can be made into new dishes with new methods
of cooking.

PRESERVATION OF LEFTOVER FOODS

There is possibility of leftover food getting spoiled if not properly preserved and this can lead to
rejection and thus wastage. Leftover foods can be prevented from undergoing undesirable changes that
leads to its spoilage.

Methods of Preserving Leftover Foods

1. Refrigeration / Freezing: the food is kept at low temperature either in the fridge or freezer to
arrest the actions of microorganisms and enzymes and keeps the food longer
2. Cupboard: the food is just covered and put inside the cupboard. This method is used in homes
where there is no refrigerator. Leftover foods get spoiled easily because of the warm
environment.

Principles of Preserving Leftover Foods

a) To prevent the growth of microbes

b) To arrest action of enzymes
c) To prevent chemical reaction on the food

Reasons for Reheating Leftover Foods

1. Reheat saves waste

2. It provides variety
3. The food is more easily digested than when it is cold
4. It is more appetizing because of its attractive appearance
5. It is economical as in addition to using up leftover, the food will serve more people when mixed
with other ingredients.

Rules for Reheating Leftover Foods

1. Reheat but do not recook the food or it will become indigestible

 2. As food gets cold, flavour is lost. Therefore, when reheating, always add extra seasoning,
additional flavouring and serve with suitable accompaniment
3. Any ingredient added should be previously cooked as the short time necessary for reheating
does not allow time for food to be thoroughly cooked
4. Divide food finely if possible so that the seasoning and heat will penetrate quickly. This helps to
prevent hardening of the protein fibers
5. Always remove skin bone and gristle and any unnecessary fat
6. As food loose moisture when reheated, moisten them well but do not make them soggy
7. Leftover food should not be stored for long before using
8. Always garnish attractively

DISADVANTAGES OF OVERHEATING LEFTOVER FOOD

Leftover foods are reheated before consumption. Further heating of leftover food has the following
disadvantages and undesirable effects: -

- Destroys nutritive quality of the food

- Protein in the food may be hardened and toughened due to overheating and digestibility is
reduced
- Carbohydrate food can turn brown
- Fats and oil can be decomposed

Examples of leftover foods that can be turned to new dishes: -

1. Leftover boiled rice and stew

2. Leftover stews and soups
3. Leftover boiled yam
4. Leftover fish
5. Meat
6. Vegetables
7. cake

MEAT COOKERY

Meat is the flesh or muscle derived from animals after slaughtering them. Since there are
different types of animal, there are also different types of meat based on the type of animal e.g.

Beef – from Cow

Mutton – from Sheep
Lamb – from young Sheep
Veal – from calf
Pork, Bacon, Ham – from Pig
Lard – pure white fat from Pig
Game – from Bush animals
Poultry – from domesticated birds

THE STRUCTURE OF MEAT

Meat is made up of bundles of muscle fibers. The fibers are joined together by connective
tissues and are connected to the bones by tendons. The muscle fibers vary in length and
thickness and also in the amount of connective tissue, gristle and fat they contain. Disposed
throughout the fibers are nerves and blood vessels.

FOOD VALUE OF MEAT

The major nutrient found in meat is Protein and of a very high quality because it is rich in all the
essential amino acid therefore, it is known as first class protein. Meat is also rich in Mineral
elements such as: - Calcium, Phosphorous and a littleSulphur.it is a valuable source of B-
Complex Vitamins. The fatty ones like pork is rich in Vitamins A &D. fat is embedded in the
connective tissues between the fibers. The percentage of water varies according to the type of
meat but all contain some water. Meat such as: - pork, ham, bacon has much fat value and
consequently has lower protein.

DIFFERENT CUTS OF MEAT

Meat from different parts of the animal is called the different cuts of meat and those cuts
include: - head, neck, chuck, rib-roast, wing-end, sirloin or T-bone steak, diamond bone steak,
rump steak, lap, aitchbones, brisket, housekeeper’s cut, button-end, shin beef, tongue, tail,
round and leg beef.

DEFFINITION OF IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES

OFFAL – offal is the name given to the edible parts of meat taken from the inside of the carcass.
It is the collective name given to the kidney, liver, heart, tripe, brain, tongue, etc.

EXTRACTIVES – These are the water soluble parts of meat that are responsible for the flavor.
They account for the variation in the taste between different kinds of meat. They can be
extracted from meat by boiling in water.
RED MEAT – This is the part of meat that contain more fat and connective tissues. It is mostly
found in beef, pork, lamb, etc. and has more flavor than others.

WHITE MEAT – This part of meat has lower texture with less amount of fat and connective
tissues e.g. veal, chicken

LEAN MEAT – This is the part of meat that contains little fat but has no super flows of fat in
them.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN PURCHASING MEAT

1. Colour – good quality meat is purplish in colour

2. Smell (odor) – meat with offensive odor should be avoided
3. Tenderness – tenderness should be considered in relation to the type of cut required

EFFECTS OF HEAT ON MEAT

1. Cooking makes meat digestible

2. It improves the flavor
3. It improves the appearance
4. Cooking diminishes the amount of water meat contains
5. Shrinkage occur on cooking due to the coagulation of protein, loss of juice and fat

METHODS OF COOKING MEAT

1. Boiling 6. Broiling
2. Frying 7. Braising
3. Roasting 8. Steaming
4. Grilling
5. Stewing

POULTRY

poultry is the meat derived from domesticated birds such as: - fowls, turkeys, ducks, geese,
guinea fowls etc.
 PREPARATION OF POULTRY BEFORE COOKING

The bird is killed at least one hour before cooking so as to allow for the period of rigor mortis to
be over. That is, the period when the bird’s carcass becomes stiff and difficult to bend. After
this period or stage, the flesh of the bird becomes tender again. For the flesh to be tender it
should be suspended by the feet in a cool dry place for at least one hour then, it is dipped in a
hot water, pluck the feathers and dressed before cooking.

FOOD VALUE OF POULTRY

Just like meat, poultry is very rich in protein of high quality because it contains all the essential
amino-acid. It is therefore, a first class protein. Poultry has little fat but the fat lies under the
skin and around the giblets especially, fowl and turkey. The fat is not embedded in-between the
fibers as in the case of meat. Poultry has small quantity of B-Complex Vitamins. The flesh
contains a lot of iron and phosphorous and poultry meat virtually contains water.

FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN PURCHASING POULTRY

1. There should be plenty of down feathers over the body of the bird
2. The comb and wattles should be big, bright red and attractive in colour
3. The legs should be smooth and pliable
4. The weight of the body should be more than that of the feathers
5. There should be no grain of corn in the crop
6. The eyes should be bright and sparkling
7. The legs should be supple and the beak pliable
8. The bird should be lively

METHODS OF COOKING POULTRY

The various methods of cooking poultry include: -

1. Boiling
2. Frying
3. Roasting
4. Grilling
5. Stewing