Chapter 10

Dynamics of Rotational Motion

10.1 Torque
We know that forces acting on a body can affect its translational motion—that
is, the motion of the body as a whole through space. Now we want to learn
which aspects of a force determine how effective it is in causing or changing
rotational motion. The magnitude and direction of the force are important, but
so is the point on the body where the force is applied.

The quantitative measure of the tendency

of a force to cause or change a body’s
rotational motion is called torque.
The tendency of the first of these forces,
F1, to cause a rotation about O depends on
its magnitude F1 . It also depends on the
perpendicular distance l1 between point O
and the line of action of the force (that is,
the line along which the force vector lies).
We call the distance l1 the lever arm (or
moment arm) of force F1 about O. The
twisting effort is directly proportional to
both F1 and l1 , so we define the torque
(or moment) of the force F1 with respect to
O as the product F1 l1 . We use the Greek
letter τ (tau) for torque. In general, for a
force of magnitude F whose line of action
is a perpendicular distance l from O, the
torque is
Force F1 in Figure tends to cause counterclockwise rotation about O, While F2 tends to
cause clockwise rotation. To distinguish between these two possibilities, we need to
choose a positive sense of rotation. With the choice that counterclockwise torques are
positive and clockwise torques are negative, the torques of F1 and F2 about O are

The SI unit of torque is the newton-meter. In our discussion of work and energy we
called this combination the joule. But torque is not work or energy, and torque should
be expressed in newton meters, not joules.
 Torque as a Vector
When a force F acts at a point having a position vector r with respect to an origin O, as in
Figure, the torque τ of the force with respect to O is the vector quantity

Example 1: Applying a torque

To loosen a pipe fitting, a plumber slips a piece of scrap pipe (a “cheater”) over his wrench handle.
He stands on the end of the cheater, applying his 900 N weight at a point 0.80 m from the center
of the fitting. The wrench handle and cheater make an angle of 19° with the horizontal. Find the
magnitude and direction of the torque he applies about the center of the fitting.
 10.2 Torque and Angular Acceleration for a Rigid Body
As a rigid body rotates around the z-
Newton’s second law for the tangential component is axis, a net force acts on one particle
of the body. Only the force
component can affect the rotation,
because only exerts a torque about
O with a z-component (along the
We can express the tangential acceleration of rotation axis).
the first particle in terms of the angular
acceleration αz of the body; a1, tan = r1 αz .
Using this relationship and multiplying both
sides of the Eq. above by r1 we obtain

Neither of the components F1, rad or F1z

contributes to the torque about the z-axis, since
neither tends to change the particle’s rotation
about that axis. So τ1z = F1, tan r1 is the total
torque acting on the particle with respect to the
rotation axis. Also, m1 r12, is I1 , the moment of
inertia of the particle about the rotation axis.
 We write an equation like this for every particle in the body and then add all these
equations:

Note that αz is the same for every particle because this is a rigid body.
(rotational analog of Newton’s second law
for a rigid body)

The torque on each particle is due to the net force on that particle, which is the
vector sum of external and internal forces
Hence all the internal torques add to zero, so the sum in Eq. above includes
only the torques of the external forces.
Often, an important external force acting on a body is its weight. This force is not
concentrated at a single point; it acts on every particle in the entire body. Nevertheless, it
turns out that if g has the same value at all points, we always get the correct torque (about
any specified axis) if we assume that all the weight is concentrated at the center of mass of
the body.
Example 2: An unwinding cable I
What is the cable’s acceleration?
Example 3: An unwinding cable II
What are the acceleration of the falling block and the tension in the cable?

For the cylinder, the only torque about its axis

is that due to the cable tension T.

the acceleration of the cable is the same as the

tangential acceleration of a point on the
cylinder rim.

We use this to replace Rαz with ay in the

cylinder equation above, and then divide by R.
10.3 Rigid-Body Rotation About a Moving Axis
We can extend our analysis of the dynamics of
rotational motion to some cases in which the axis
of rotation moves. When that happens, the
motion of the body is combined translation and
rotation. The key to understanding such situations
is this: Every possible motion of a rigid body can
be represented as a combination of translational
motion of the center of mass and rotation about
an axis through the center of mass. This is true
even when the center of mass accelerates, so that
it is not at rest in any inertial frame.
The Figure given on the right illustrates this for the
motion of a tossed baton: The center of mass of
the baton follows a parabolic curve, as though the
baton were a particle located at the center of
mass. Other examples of combined translational
and rotational motions include a ball rolling down
a hill and a yo-yo unwinding at the end of a string.
 Combined Translation and Rotation: Energy Relationships

The velocity vi of this particle relative to an inertial frame is

the vector sum of the velocity of the center of mass and the
velocity of the particle relative to the center of mass:
Rolling Without Slipping
An important case of combined translation and rotation is rolling without slipping, such
as the motion of the wheel shown in Figure. The wheel is symmetrical, so its center of
mass is at its geometric center. We view the motion in an inertial frame of reference in
which the surface on which the wheel rolls is at rest. In this frame, the point on the
wheel that contacts the surface must be instantaneously at rest so that it does not slip.
Hence the velocity of the point of contact relative to the center of mass must have the
same magnitude but opposite direction as the center-of-mass velocity If the radius
of the wheel is R and its angular speed about the center of mass is ω, then the
magnitude of is Rω; hence we must have
(condition for rolling without slipping)
At any instant we can think of the wheel as rotating about an “instantaneous axis” of
rotation that passes through the point of contact with the ground. The angular velocity ω
is the same for this axis as for an axis through the center of mass; an observer at the
center of mass sees the rim make the same number of revolutions per second as does an
observer at the rim watching the center of mass spin around him. If we think of the
motion of the rolling wheel in Figure in this way, the kinetic energy of the wheel is
K=(1/2)I1 ω2 where I1 is the moment of inertia of the wheel about an axis through point 1.
But by the parallel-axis theorem, I1 = Icm + MR2, where M is the total mass of the wheel
and Icm is the moment of inertia with respect to an axis through the center of mass. Using
Eq. (Vcm=R ω), the kinetic energy of the wheel is

If a rigid body changes height as it moves, we must also consider gravitational potential
energy. The gravitational potential energy associated with any extended body of mass M,
rigid or not, is the same as if we replace the body by a particle of mass M located at the
body’s center of mass. That is,
 Example 4: Speed of a primitive yo-yo
You make a primitive yo-yo by wrapping a massless string around a solid cylinder
with mass M and radius R. You hold the free end of the string stationary and
release the cylinder from rest. The string unwinds but does not slip or stretch as
the cylinder descends and rotates. Using energy considerations, find the speed
vcm of the center of mass of the cylinder after it has descended a distance h.

Example 5: Race of the rolling bodies

In a physics demonstration, an instructor “races” various bodies
that roll without slipping from rest down an inclined plane . What
shape should a body have to reach the bottom of the incline first?
Combined Translation and Rotation: Dynamics
We can also analyze the combined translational and rotational motions of a rigid
body from the standpoint of dynamics.

It is assumed that the axis of rotation was stationary. But in fact, the last
Equation is valid even when the axis of rotation moves, provided the following
two conditions are met:

1. The axis through the center of mass must be an axis of symmetry.

2. The axis must not change direction.

These conditions are satisfied for many types of rotation. Note that in general
this moving axis of rotation is not at rest in an inertial frame of reference.
Example 6: Acceleration of a primitive yo-yo
For the primitive yo-yo in Example 4, find the downward acceleration of the
cylinder and the tension in the string.
Example 7: Acceleration of a rolling sphere
A bowling ball rolls without slipping down a ramp, which is inclined at an angle β to
the horizontal. What are the ball’s acceleration and the magnitude of the friction
force on the ball? Treat the ball as a uniform solid sphere, ignoring the finger holes.

Because the ball does not slip

at the instantaneous point of
contact with the ramp, this is a
static friction force; it prevents
slipping and gives the ball its
angular acceleration.)

The ball rolls without slipping, so as in Example 6 we use acm-x=Rαz to eliminate αz from
above Eqn.
Rolling Friction
In Example 5 we said that we can ignore rolling friction if both the rolling body and the
surface over which it rolls are perfectly rigid. In Figure a perfectly rigid sphere is rolling down
a perfectly rigid incline. The line of action of the normal force passes through the center of
the sphere, so its torque is zero; there is no sliding at the point of contact, so the friction
force does no work.
Figure b shows a more realistic situation, in which the surface “piles up” in front of the
sphere and the sphere rides in a shallow trench. Because of these deformations, the contact
forces on the sphere no longer act along a single point, but over an area; the forces are
concentrated on the front of the sphere as shown. As a result, the normal force now exerts a
torque that opposes the rotation. In addition, there is some sliding of the sphere over the
surface due to the deformation, causing mechanical energy to be lost.
The combination of these two effects is the phenomenon of rolling friction.
Rolling friction also occurs if the rolling body is deformable, such as an automobile tire. Often
the rolling body and the surface are rigid enough that rolling friction can be ignored,
10.4 Work and Power in Rotational Motion
The work dW done by the force Ftan while a point on the rim moves a distance ds is
dW=Ftands. If dθ is measured in radians, then ds=Rdθ and

(work done by a torque)

If the torque remains constant while the angle changes by a finite amount Δθ=θ 2 -θ1

(work done by a constant torque)

The work done by a constant torque is the product of torque and the angular
displacement. If torque is expressed in newton-meters (N.m) and angular displacement in
radians, the work is in joules.
If the force in Figure above had an axial component (parallel to the rotation axis) or a radial
component (directed toward or away from the axis), that component would do no work
because the displacement of the point of application has only a tangential component.
Let τz represent the net torque on the body so that τz = I αz , and assume that the body is
rigid so that the moment of inertia I is constant. We then transform the integrand in
into an integrand with respect to ωz as follows:

The change in the rotational kinetic energy of a rigid body equals

The rotational kinetic energy of
the work done by forces exerted from outside the body. an airplane propeller is equal to
Power associated with work done by a torque acting on a rotating the total work done to set it
body? spinning. When it is spinning at
a constant rate, positive work is
done on the propeller by the
engine and negative work is
But dW/dt is the rate of doing work, or power P, and dθ/dt is done on it by air resistance.
angular velocity ωz, so Hence the net work being done
is zero and the kinetic energy
remains constant.

When τz a torque (with respect to the axis of rotation) acts on a body that rotates with
angular velocity ωz , its power (rate of doing work) is the product of τz and ωz . This is the
analog of the relationship .
Example 8: Calculating power from torque
An electric motor exerts a constant 10 N.m torque on a grindstone, which has a
moment of inertia 2.0 kg.m2 of about its shaft. The system starts from rest. Find the
work W done by the motor in 8.0 s and the grindstone kinetic energy K at this time.
What average power Pav is delivered by the motor?
 10.5 Angular Momentum
The analog of momentum of a particle is angular momentum, a vector quantity
denoted as L. Its relationship to momentum P (which we will often call linear
momentum for clarity) is exactly the same as the relationship of torque to force, τ=rxF .
For a particle with constant mass m, velocity v, momentum P=mv and position vector r
relative to the origin O of an inertial frame, we define angular momentum L as

(angular momentum of a particle)

The value of L depends on the choice of origin O, since it

involves the particle’s position vector relative to O. The units of
angular momentum are kg.m2/s .

When a net force acts on a particle, its velocity and

momentum change, so its angular momentum may also
change. The rate of change of angular momentum is
equal to the torque of the net force.
We take the time derivative of , using the rule for the derivative
of a product:

The first term is zero because it contains the vector product of the vector V=dr/dt with
itself. In the second term we replace ma with the net force F, obtaining
(for a particle acted
on by net force F)

The rate of change of angular momentum of

a particle equals the torque of the net force
acting on it.
Angular Momentum of a Rigid Body
To find the total angular momentum of a rigid body
rotating about the z-axis with angular speed ω, first
consider a thin slice of the body lying in the xy-plane (see
Figure). Each particle in the slice moves in a circle
centered at the origin, and at each instant its velocity vi is
perpendicular to its position vector ri as shown. Hence in
Eq. ( ), θ=90° for every particle. A
particle with mass mi at a distance ri from O has a speed
Vi equal to riω. Then the magnitude Li of its angular
momentum is

The direction of each particle’s angular momentum, as

given by the right-hand rule for the vector product, is
along the +z axis.

The total angular momentum of the slice of the body lying in the xy-plane is the sum
of the angular momenta Li of the particles.

where I is the moment of inertia of the slice about the z-axis.

 When a body rotates about an axis of symmetry, its angular momentum vector
lies along the symmetry axis, and its magnitude is L = Iω.
The angular velocity vector ω also lies along the rotation axis. Hence for a rigid
body rotating around an axis of symmetry, L and ω are in the same direction.
So we have the vector relationship
For rotation about an axis of
(for a rigid body rotating around symmetry, ω and L are
a symmetry axis) parallel and along the axis.
The directions of both
For any system of particles (including both rigid and vectors are given by the
nonrigid bodies), the rate of change of the total right-hand rule.
angular momentum equals the sum of the torques
of all forces acting on all the particles. The torques
of the internal forces add to zero if these forces act
along the line from one particle to another, and so
the sum of the torques includes only the torques of
the external forces (A similar cancellation occurred in
our discussion of center-of-mass motion). If the total
angular momentum of the system of particles is and
the sum of the external torques is then
(for any system of particles)
 Finally, if the system of particles is a rigid body rotating about a symmetry axis
(the z-axis), then and I is constant. If this axis has a fixed direction in
space, then the vectors L and ω change only in magnitude, not in direction. In
that case, or

which is again our basic relationship for the dynamics of rigid-body rotation. If
the body is not rigid, I may change, and in that case, L changes even when ω is
constant. For a nonrigid body, is still valid, even though is
not.

When the axis of rotation is not a symmetry axis, the

angular momentum is in general not parallel to the
axis. As the body turns, the angular momentum vector
traces out a cone around the rotation axis. Because
changes, there must be a net external torque acting
on the body even though the angular velocity
magnitude may be constant.

If the rotation axis of a rigid body is not a symmetry axis, does not in
general lie along the rotation axis. Even if ω is constant, the direction
of changes and a net torque is required to maintain rotation.
Example 9: Angular momentum and torque
A turbine fan in a jet engine has a moment of inertia of 2.5 kg.m2 about its axis of
rotation. As the turbine starts up, its angular velocity is given by ωz=(40 rad/s3)t2 .
(a) Find the fan’s angular momentum as a function of time, and find its value at
t=3.0 s. (b) Find the net torque on the fan as a function of time, and find its value at
t=3.0 s.
 10.6 Conservation of Angular Momentum
Like conservation of energy and of linear momentum, this principle is a universal
conservation law, valid at all scales from atomic and nuclear systems to the motions of
galaxies. This principle follows

When the net external torque acting on a system is zero, the

total angular momentum of the system is constant (conserved).

(zero net external torque)

Suppose body A exerts a force on body B; the corresponding torque (with respect to
whatever point we choose) is This torque is equal to the rate of change of angular
momentum of B:

That is, the total angular momentum of the system is constant. The torques
of the internal forces can transfer angular momentum from one body to
the other, but they can’t change the total angular momentum of the system
Example 10: Anyone can be a ballerina
A physics professor stands at the center of a frictionless turntable with arms
outstretched and a 5.0-kg dumbbell in each hand. He is set rotating about the
vertical axis, making one revolution in 2.0 s. Find his final angular velocity if he pulls
the dumbbells in to his stomach. His moment of inertia (without the dumbbells) is
3.0 kg.m2 with arms outstretched and 2.2 kg.m2 with his hands at his stomach. The
dumbbells are 1.0 m from the axis initially and 0.20 m at the end.
Example 11: A rotational “collision”
Figure shows two disks: an engine flywheel (A) and a clutch plate (B) attached to a
transmission shaft. Their moments of inertia are IA and IB initially, they are rotating
with constant angular speeds ωA and ωB , respectively. We push the disks together
with forces acting along the axis, so as not to apply any torque on either disk. The
disks rub against each other and eventually reach a common angular speed ω.
Derive an expression for ω.

All angular velocities are in the same

direction, so we can regard ωA , ωB and ω
as components of angular velocity along
the rotation axis. Conservation of angular
momentum gives
Example 12: Angular momentum in a crime bust
A door 1.00 m wide, of mass 15 kg, can rotate freely about a vertical axis through
its hinges. A bullet with a mass of 10 g and a speed of 400 m/s strikes the center of
the door, in a direction perpendicular to the plane of the door, and embeds itself
there. Find the door’s angular speed. Is kinetic energy conserved?

The moment of inertia of the bullet (with

respect to the axis along the hinges) is

Conservation of angular momentum requires that

 10.7 Gyroscopes and Precession
A variety of new physical phenomena, some quite unexpected, can occur when the axis of
rotation can change direction. Nonintuitive motion of the axis is called precession.
Precession is found in nature as well as in rotating machines such as gyroscopes. As you read
these words, the earth itself is precessing; its spin axis (through the north and south poles)
slowly changes direction, going through a complete cycle of precession every 26,000 years.

A gyroscope supported at one end. The

horizontal circular motion of the
flywheel and axis is called precession.
The angular speed of precession is Ω.

When the flywheel and its axis are

stationary, they will fall to the
table surface. When the flywheel
spins, it and its axis “float” in the
air while moving in a circle about
the pivot.
 (a) If the flywheel in Figure is initially not
spinning, its initial angular momentum is zero
(b) In each successive time interval dt, the
torque produces a change in the
angular momentum. The flywheel acquires an
angular momentum L in the same direction as
τ, and the flywheel axis falls.

When the flywheel is not rotating, its

weight creates a torque around the pivot,
causing it to fall along a circular path until
its axis rests on the table surface.

In falling, the flywheel

rotates about the pivot
and thus acquires an
angular momentum L. The
direction of L stays
constant.
(a) The flywheel is spinning initially with angular momentum Li . The forces (not
shown) are the same as those in Fig. a. (b) Because the initial angular momentum is
not zero, each change in angular momentum is perpendicular to L. As a
result, the magnitude of L remains the same but its direction changes continuously.

precession angular speed

Detailed view of part of Fig. b.
References: 1) Sears and Zemansky,’s, University Physics with Modern Physics, Young and Freedman, 13th Edition
2) Physics for Scientists & Engineers, Serway & Jewett , 6th ed.