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IEEE Std C57.113™-2010
(Revision of
IEEE Std C57.113-1991)

IEEE Recommended Practice for

Partial Discharge Measurement in
Liquid-Filled Power Transformers and
Shunt Reactors

Sponsor

Transformers Committee
of the
IEEE Power & Energy Society

Approved 17 June 2010

IEEE-SA Standards Board
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Abstract: Wideband measurement of the apparent charge of partial discharges (PDs) that may
occur in liquid-filled power transformers and shunt reactors excited by ac test voltages between
40 Hz and 400 Hz are discussed. The major components of the PD measuring circuit including
the calibrator are specified in compliance with IEC 60270. The PD test procedure is described
and recommendations for the evaluation of PD test results are presented.
Keywords: apparent charge, IEEE C57.113, partial discharge (PD), power transformer, shunt
reactor, wideband PD measurement

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

3 Park Avenue, New York, NY 10016-5997, USA

Copyright © 2010 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.

All rights reserved. Published 20 August 2010. Printed in the United States of America.

IEEE is a registered trademark in the U.S. Patent & Trademark Office, owned by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers, Incorporated.

PDF: ISBN 978-0-7381-6383-3 STD96098

Print: ISBN 978-0-7381-6384-0 STDPD96098

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Introduction

This introduction is not part of IEEE Std C57.113-2010, IEEE Recommended Practice for Partial Discharge
Measurement in Liquid-Filled Power Transformers and Shunt Reactors.

The detection of partial discharges (PDs) was introduced for quality assurance tests of high-voltage (HV)
apparatus at the beginning of 1960. Originally this technique was based on the measurement of radio
interference voltages (RIV) in terms of microvolts (µV) as recommended by NEMA TR1-1974 [B112],
NEMA 107-1964 [B113], and CISPR 16-1-1993 [B42]. a This quantity, however, is weighted according to
the acoustical noise impression of the human ear, which is not a measure of the PD activity in the insulation
of HV apparatus. As a consequence, Technical Committee No. 42 of IEC decided to prepare a separate
standard for PD measurements associated with the apparent charge, which was first published in 1968.
Since that time, this technology is considered as an indispensable tool for an enhancement of the reliability
of HV apparatus. IEEE Std C57.113-2010 covers the wideband method for apparent charge measurements
in compliance with the third edition of IEC 60270, published in 2000. b

Notice to users

Laws and regulations

Users of these documents should consult all applicable laws and regulations. Compliance with the
provisions of this standard does not imply compliance to any applicable regulatory requirements.
Implementers of the standard are responsible for observing or referring to the applicable regulatory
requirements. IEEE does not, by the publication of its standards, intend to urge action that is not in
compliance with applicable laws, and these documents may not be construed as doing so.

Copyrights
This document is copyrighted by the IEEE. It is made available for a wide variety of both public and
private uses. These include both use, by reference, in laws and regulations, and use in private self-
regulation, standardization, and the promotion of engineering practices and methods. By making this
document available for use and adoption by public authorities and private users, the IEEE does not waive
any rights in copyright to this document.

a
The numbers in brackets correspond to those of the bibliography in Annex H.
b
Information on references can be found in Clause 2.

iv
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Updating of IEEE documents
Users of IEEE standards should be aware that these documents may be superseded at any time by the
issuance of new editions or may be amended from time to time through the issuance of amendments,
corrigenda, or errata. An official IEEE document at any point in time consists of the current edition of the
document together with any amendments, corrigenda, or errata then in effect. In order to determine whether
a given document is the current edition and whether it has been amended through the issuance of
amendments, corrigenda, or errata, visit the IEEE Standards Association web site at
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For more information about the IEEE Standards Association or the IEEE standards development process,
visit the IEEE-SA web site at http://standards.ieee.org.

Errata
Errata, if any, for this and all other standards can be accessed at the following URL:
http://standards.ieee.org/reading/ieee/updates/errata/index.html. Users are encouraged to check this URL
for errata periodically.

Interpretations
Current interpretations can be accessed at the following URL: http://standards.ieee.org/reading/ieee/interp/
index.html.

Patents
Attention is called to the possibility that implementation of this recommended practice may require use of
subject matter covered by patent rights. By publication of this recommended practice, no position is taken
with respect to the existence or validity of any patent rights in connection therewith. The IEEE is not
responsible for identifying Essential Patent Claims for which a license may be required, for conducting
inquiries into the legal validity or scope of Patents Claims or determining whether any licensing terms or
conditions provided in connection with submission of a Letter of Assurance, if any, or in any licensing
agreements are reasonable or non-discriminatory. Users of this recommended practice are expressly
advised that determination of the validity of any patent rights, and the risk of infringement of such rights, is
entirely their own responsibility. Further information may be obtained from the IEEE Standards
Association.

v
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Participants
At the time this recommended practice was submitted to the IEEE-SA Standards Board for approval, the
Dielectric Tests―TF on PD Measurement Working Group had the following membership:

Bertrand Poulin, Chair

Raymond Bartnikas Stephen Jordan Dirk Russwurm

Alain Bolliger Vladimir Khalin Hemchandra Shertukde
Carl Bush Eberhard Lemke Charles Sweetser
Alan Darwin Paul Millward Juan Luis Thierry
Reto Fausch Arthur Molden Subash Tuli
Marcel Fortin Martin Navarro Dharam Vir
John Harley Ron Nicholas Loren Wagenaar
Peter Heinzig Mark Perkins Hanxin Zhu
Thang Hochanh Gustav Preininger Waldemar Ziomek

Most of the work in writing this document was done by the TF Chair Eberhard Lemke and TF Members
Marcel Fortin, John Harley, Thang Hochanh, Stephen Jordan, Vladimir Khalin, Mark Perkins, Bertrand
Poulin, and Loren Wagenaar.

The following members of the individual balloting committee voted on this recommended practice.
Balloters may have voted for approval, disapproval, or abstention.

Samuel H. Aguirre John Densley Gael Kennedy

Stan Arnot Dieter Dohnal Sheldon Kennedy
Carlo Arpino Randall Dotson Vladimir Khalin
Javier Arteaga Donald Dunn Joseph L. Koepfinger
Ali Al Awazi Fred Elliott Jim Kulchisky
Martin Baur Gary Engmann Saumen Kundu
Barry Beaster Donald Fallon John Lackey
Stephen Beattie Rabiz Foda Chung-Yiu Lam
W. J. Bill Bergman Joseph Foldi Stephen Lambert
Steven Bezner Bruce Forsyth Thomas La Rose
Wallace Binder Marcel Fortin Raymond Lings
Thomas Blackburn Saurabh Ghosh Maurice Linker
Thomas Blair Jalal Gohari Thomas Lundquist
David Blew Eduardo Gomez-Hennig G. Luri
William Bloethe Edwin Goodwin Keith Malmedal
W. Boettger James Graham J. Dennis Marlow
Paul Boman Randall Groves John W. Matthews
Harvey Bowles Bal Gupta Joseph Melanson
Jeffrey Britton Kenneth Hanus Gary Michel
Chris Brooks David Harris Daleep Mohla
Kent Brown Robert Hartgrove Daniel Mulkey
Carl Bush Roger Hayes Jerry Murphy
Donald Cash Peter Heinzig Michael S. Newman
Yunxiang Chen Gary Heuston Raymond Nicholas
Bill Chiu James Huddleston III Miklos Orosz
Craig Colopy Wayne Johnson J. Patton
Tommy Cooper James Jones Brian Penny
Jerry Corkran Stephen Jordan Patrick Picher
John Crouse Lars Juhlin Paul Pillitteri
Alan Darwin C. Kalra Alvaro Portillo

vi
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Bertrand Poulin Daniel Sauer John Sullivan
Paulette Payne Powell Gregg Sauer S. Thamilarasan
Gustav Preininger Bartien Sayogo James Thompson
Iulian Profir Hyeong Sim Subhash Tuli
Pierre Riffon Tarkeshwar Singh Joe Uchiyama
Michael Roberts Charles Smith John Vergis
Oleg Roizman James Smith Jane Verner
Marnie Roussell Jerry Smith Loren Wagenaar
Thomas Rozek John Stein Barry Ward
Dinesh Sankarakurup Thomas Wier

When the IEEE-SA Standards Board approved this recommended practice on 17 June 2010, it had the
following membership:

Robert M. Grow, Chair

Richard H. Hulett, Vice Chair
Steve M. Mills, Past Chair
Judith Gorman, Secretary

Karen Bartleson Young Kyun Kim Ronald C. Petersen

Victor Berman Joseph L. Koepfinger* Thomas Prevost
Ted Burse John Kulick Jon Walter Rosdahl
Clint Chaplin David J. Law Sam Sciacca
Andy Drozd Hung Ling Mike Seavey
Alexander Gelman Oleg Logvinov Curtis Siller
Jim Hughes Ted Olsen Don Wright

*Member Emeritus

Also included are the following nonvoting IEEE-SA Standards Board liaisons:

Satish K. Aggarwal, NRC Representative

Richard DeBlasio, DOE Representative
Michael Janezic, NIST Representative

Don Messina
IEEE Standards Program Manager, Document Development

Matthew J. Ceglia
IEEE Standards Program Manager, Technical Program Development

vii
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Contents

1. Overview .................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Scope ................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Purpose ................................................................................................................................................ 1

2. Normative references.................................................................................................................................. 2

3. Definitions .................................................................................................................................................. 2

4. Specification of PD measuring circuits ...................................................................................................... 3

4.1 General ................................................................................................................................................ 3
4.2 Coupling capacitor............................................................................................................................... 4
4.3 Measuring impedance.......................................................................................................................... 5
4.4 PD measuring instrument .................................................................................................................... 5
4.5 PD calibrator........................................................................................................................................ 7
4.6 Maintaining the specified parameters of PD measuring circuits ......................................................... 8

5. PD test procedure ....................................................................................................................................... 8

5.1 Calibration ........................................................................................................................................... 8
5.2 PD measurement.................................................................................................................................. 9

Annex A (informative) Design of PD coupling units ................................................................................... 12

Annex B (informative) Response of PD measuring instruments.................................................................. 17

Annex C (informative) Calibration of PD measuring circuits ...................................................................... 20

Annex D (informative) Basic sensitivity check............................................................................................ 21

Annex E (informative) Bushing tap ratio measurement ............................................................................... 23

Annex F (informative) Noise identification ................................................................................................. 24

Annex G (informative) PD pattern recognition ............................................................................................ 27

Annex H (informative) Bibliography ........................................................................................................... 29

viii
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IEEE Recommended Practice for
Partial Discharge Measurement in
Liquid-Filled Power Transformers and
Shunt Reactors

IMPORTANT NOTICE: This standard is not intended to ensure safety, security, health, or
environmental protection. Implementers of the standard are responsible for determining appropriate
safety, security, environmental, and health practices or regulatory requirements.

This IEEE document is made available for use subject to important notices and legal disclaimers.
These notices and disclaimers appear in all publications containing this document and may
be found under the heading “Important Notice” or “Important Notices and Disclaimers
Concerning IEEE Documents.” They can also be obtained on request from IEEE or viewed at
http://standards.ieee.org/IPR/disclaimers.html.

1. Overview

1.1 Scope

This recommended practice describes the test procedure for the detection and measurement by the
wideband apparent charge method of partial discharges (PDs) occurring in liquid-filled power transformers
and shunt reactors during dielectric tests, where applicable.

1.2 Purpose

PD measurements in transformers and shunt reactors should preferably be made on the basis of
measurement of the apparent charge. Relevant measuring systems are classified as narrowband or
wideband systems. Both systems are recognized and widely used. Without giving preference to one or the
other, it is the object of this document to describe the wideband method. General principles of PD
measurements, including the narrowband method, are covered in IEC 60270 and IEC 60076-3 [B71].1, 2

1
Information on references can be found in Clause 2.
2
The numbers in brackets correspond to those of the bibliography in Annex H.

1
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IEEE Std C57.113-2010
IEEE Recommended Practice for Partial Discharge Measurement in
Liquid-Filled Power Transformers and Shunt Reactors

2. Normative references
The following referenced documents are indispensable for the application of this document (i.e., they must
be understood and used, so each referenced document is cited in text and its relationship to this document is
explained). For dated references, only the edition cited applies. For undated references, the latest edition of
the referenced document (including any amendments or corrigenda) applies.

IEC 60270, High-voltage test techniques―Partial discharge measurements. 3

IEEE Std 4™, IEEE Standard Techniques for High Voltage Testing. 4, 5

IEEE Std C57.12.00™, IEEE Standard General Requirements for Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power,
and Regulating Transformers (ANSI)

IEEE Std C57.12.90™, IEEE Standard Test Code for Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power, and
Regulating Transformers

IEEE Std C57.19.00™, IEEE Standard Requirements and Test Procedures for Power Apparatus Bushings.

3. Definitions
For the purposes of this document, the following terms and definitions apply. The IEEE Standards
Dictionary: Glossary of Terms & Definitions should be referenced for terms not defined in this clause. 6

apparent charge level: Mean value of the apparent charge of partial discharge (PD) pulse trains measured
in terms of picocoulomb (pC) by means of PD instruments.

NOTE—As specified in 4.5. 7

calibrating charge: Charge of artificial partial discharge (PD) pulses generated by PD calibrators.

NOTE—As specified in 4.6.

frequency response: Transfer impedance of the partial discharge (PD) measuring instrument versus the
frequency characterized by the lower and upper limit frequency, f1 and f2.
NOTE—As specified in 4.5.

PD calibrating circuit: Interconnection of the partial discharge (PD) calibrator with the test object and the
PD measuring circuit intended for the determination of the scale factor, Sf.
NOTE—As specified in 4.6.

3
IEC publications are available from the Central Office of the International Electrotechnical Commission, 3, rue de Varembé, P.O.
Box 131, CH-1211, Geneva 20, Switzerland (http://www.iec.ch/). IEC publications are also available in the United States from the
Sales Department, American National Standards Institute, 25 West 43rd Street, 4th Floor, New York, NY 10036, USA
(http://www.ansi.org/).
4
IEEE publications are available from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 445 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854,
USA (http://standards.ieee.org).
5
The IEEE standards or products referred to in Clause 2 are trademarks owned by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers,
Incorporated.
6
The IEEE Standards Dictionary: Glossary of Terms & Definitions is available at http://shop.ieee.org/.
7
Notes in text, tables, and figures of a standard are given for information only and do not contain requirements needed to implement
this standard.

2
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IEEE Std C57.113-2010
IEEE Recommended Practice for Partial Discharge Measurement in
Liquid-Filled Power Transformers and Shunt Reactors

PD measuring circuit: Interconnection of the partial discharge (PD) measuring instrument with the
measuring impedance and the coupling capacitor intended for measuring the apparent charge level.

pulse train response: Reading of the partial discharge (PD) measuring instrument versus the repetition
frequency of injected calibrating pulses.
NOTE—As specified in 4.6.

specified apparent charge level: Apparent charge level permitted for the test object if subjected to the
partial discharge (PD) test procedure and conditioning stated in IEEE Std C57.12.90 and
IEEE Std C57.19.00.

4. Specification of PD measuring circuits

4.1 General

To measure the apparent charge, the following major circuit components are required:

⎯ Coupling unit, which captures the PD signal from the terminals of the test object
⎯ Measuring instrument, which processes the captured PD pulses and evaluates the apparent charge
level
⎯ Associated high-voltage (HV) and low-voltage (LV) leads and measuring cables, which connect the
individual components

Generally the coupling unit contains a coupling capacitor, Ck, which is connected in series with measuring
impedance, Zm. If the test object is equipped with capacitive graded bushings, the capacitance between HV
conductor and bushing tap, C1, may substitute the coupling capacitor, Ck, as illustrated in Figure 1.

3
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IEEE Std C57.113-2010
IEEE Recommended Practice for Partial Discharge Measurement in
Liquid-Filled Power Transformers and Shunt Reactors

Fi Hv
Pc

C0

V0
C1
Bt

Dc
C2 Mc
Zm
Mi

Ca
To

Figure 1 —PD measuring circuit using the bushing tap coupling mode
C0 – Calibrating capacitor
C1 – Capacitance between HV conductor and bushing tap
C2– Capacitance between bushing tap and grounded bushing flange
Ca – Virtual capacitance of the test object
Dc – Coupling device
Fi – Noise rejection filter
Hv – Connection to the HV test supply
Mc – Measuring cable
Mi – Measuring instrument
Pc – PD calibrator
To – Test object
V0 – Step pulse generator
Zm – Measuring impedance

The HV connection leads between the test object and coupling capacitor should be PD-free up to the
highest applied ac test voltage level. The ground connection leads should be kept as short as possible in
order to reduce the inductance and thus to minimize the impact of electromagnetic interferences disturbing
sensitive PD measurements. Optional HV and LV filters may also be utilized to reduce the influence of
environmental disturbances.

4.2 Coupling capacitor

The coupling capacitor, Ck, is intended for the decoupling of the high-frequency PD signal from the
terminals of the test object at low attenuation, due to the high-pass filter characteristics of this unit.
Additionally the ac test voltage level appears extremely reduced at the output of Ck. This response is also
achieved, if instead of the coupling capacitor, Ck, the capacitance between HV conductor and bushing tap,

4
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IEEE Std C57.113-2010
IEEE Recommended Practice for Partial Discharge Measurement in
Liquid-Filled Power Transformers and Shunt Reactors

C1, is utilized. To minimize the impact of stray capacitances on PD test results, the capacitance of Ck and
C1 should exceed 300 pF. Moreover, these units should be PD-free up to the maximum applied ac test
voltage level.

4.3 Measuring impedance

The measuring impedance, Zm, is intended for the conversion of PD current pulses into equivalent voltage
pulses. Using the classical coupling mode by means of a separate coupling capacitor, the measuring
impedance, Zm, is generally formed by a parallel connection of a resistor, Rm, with an inductor, Lm; see
Annex A.

If the bushing tap coupling mode according to Figure 1 is used, the measuring impedance, Zm, consists of
the parallel connection of a resistor, Rm, and an inductor, Lm. Both elements are additionally shunted by
the capacitance between bushing tap and grounded bushing flange, C2; see Annex A.

Moreover, passive and active elements could be utilized for PD signal filtering and overvoltage protection.
All these elements are usually integrated in a terminating box, referred to in IEC 60270 as a coupling
device, Dc.

Due to the high-pass filter characteristics of the series connection of either Ck or C1 with the measuring
impedance, Zm, care should be taken that the specified lower limit frequency, f1, of the complete PD
measuring circuit is not substantially affected by the parameters of the PD coupling unit; see Annex A.

WARNING
In order to minimize any danger for the operator and the instrumentation, as well as to ensure an optimum
signal transmission, the coupling device should always be located inside the HV test area. The coupling
device shall be attached physically as close as possible to the bushing tap or to the coupling capacitor.

4.4 PD measuring instrument

For measuring the apparent charge, either the analog or the digital signal processing can be utilized.
Independent from the measuring principle applied, the instrumentation is generally equipped with the
following major units:

⎯ Attenuator, to adjust the magnitude of the input PD pulses

⎯ Band-pass filter amplifier, to amplify and integrate the captured PD pulses
⎯ Peak detector, to evaluate the apparent charge level

To ensure comparable and reproducible PD test results, both the frequency response and the pulse train
response of PD measuring instruments should be specified.

4.4.1 Frequency response

To measure the apparent charge level the captured PD current pulses are integrated. For this purpose
usually a band-pass filter is utilized, characterized by the lower and upper limit frequency, f1 and f2, and
the bandwidth, ∆f, given by Equation (1):

5
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IEEE Std C57.113-2010
IEEE Recommended Practice for Partial Discharge Measurement in
Liquid-Filled Power Transformers and Shunt Reactors

∆f = f2 – f1
(1)

To keep the integration error as low as possible, the PD measurement is performed in a frequency range
where the amplitude-frequency spectrum of the PD pulses is nearly constant; see Annex B.

From a practical point of view the lower limit frequency, f1, should be located around 100 kHz. Lower
values may minimize the impact of attenuation of PD pulses propagating along transformer windings.
However, this may also lead to serious disturbances, such as iron core related noises as well as harmonics
from the ac test facility. To reduce the impact of interferences in the low-frequency range the high-pass
filter characteristics should be such that the attenuation is about 40 dB for frequencies around 25 kHz and
at least 60 dB for frequencies below 15 kHz.

To minimize the integration error, the upper limit frequency, f2, should be chosen around 300 kHz. To
reduce interferences of radio broadcast stations, the attenuation should exceed 20 dB for frequencies above
500 kHz and at least 40 dB for frequencies above one MHz

From the specified frequencies, f1 and f2, it follows that the bandwidth, ∆f, has a value of 200 kHz. A
wider bandwidth would be useful for the localization of PD sites, but this may lead to an increasing
measuring error, because the PD pulses may not be integrated as desired; see Annex B.

4.4.2 Pulse train response

To evaluate the apparent charge level of random distributed PD pulse trains, the pulse magnitudes should
be averaged in compliance with IEC 60270. This is accomplished if the characteristic charging time
constant, τ1, and discharging time constant, τ2, of the peak detector, as part of the PD measuring
instrument, satisfy the condition τ1 << τ2 < 440 ms.

NOTE 1—If the pulse train response differs significantly from those recommended in IEC 60270 the actual
dependence of the reading, Ri, versus the pulse repetition rate, N, should be determined in order to judge the evaluation
of the apparent charge level.

NOTE 2—To eliminate stochastically appearing noise pulses at comparatively low repetition rate, for instance one
pulse per cycle of the applied ac test voltage, some PD detectors are equipped with special features for noise
suppression which may reject pulses having a repetition rate below 100 Hz. Care should be taken when using this
instrumentation because PD pulses of high magnitude may not be recognized if they do not ignite in each half-cycle of
the applied ac test voltage. To avoid such erroneous measurements, a visualization of the phase-resolved PD pulses is
strongly recommended using a suitable display unit, such as a scope or a computer.

NOTE 3—The specified pulse train response is appropriate only for ac test voltages where the frequency may range
between 40 Hz and 400 Hz. For dc test voltages or test voltages composed by ac and dc voltages, it is recommended to
evaluate the number versus the magnitude of PD pulses.

4.4.3 Display unit

In addition to the measurement of the apparent charge level by means of analog or digital meters it is
strongly recommended to display the phase-resolved PD patterns by means of a suitable display unit, such
as an oscilloscope or a computer. This may assist not only the identification and classification of harmful
PD defects but also the discrimination of disturbing electromagnetic interferences, which are often not
phase-correlated.

6
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IEEE Recommended Practice for Partial Discharge Measurement in
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4.4.4 Basic sensitivity

The basic sensitivity should be determined by means of calibrating pulses specified in 4.6, which are
injected into the input of the measuring impedance connected to the PD measuring instrument via the
associated measuring cable. A calibrating charge of 50 pC should cause a minimum deflection of 50% of
the full reading of the indicating instrument or of the optional display unit.

4.4.5 Linearity

The linearity should be determined by means of calibrating pulses specified in 4.6, which should be
injected in the measuring impedance connected via the associated measuring cable to the PD measuring
instrument. The measuring sensitivity should be adjusted such that the full reading (100%) is obtained for
an injected calibrating charge of 500 pC. After that the magnitude of the calibrating charge should be
reduced stepwise by 100 pC. Under this condition the values indicated by the PD measuring instrument
should not deviate by more than ±10% from the true magnitudes of the injected pulse charges.

4.5 PD calibrator

The PD calibrator is intended for the simulation of the charge transfer from the PD source to the terminals
of the test object; see Annex C. To generate artificial PD pulses required for this purpose, the calibrator is
generally equipped with a pulse generator connected in series with a calibrating capacitor, C0; see Figure 1.
The pulse generator produces fast rising step voltages of known magnitudes, V0. Therefore the calibrating
charge is given by Equation (2):

q0 = V0 × C0
(2)

The PD calibrator should meet the requirements of IEC 60270. To adjust the desired magnitude of the
calibrating charge, q0, the magnitude of the voltage step, V0, and the capacitance of the calibrating
capacitor, C0, can be tuned accordingly. The calibrating charge should be adjustable between 50 pC and
1000 pC. These magnitudes should not differ by more than ±10% from the rated values.

To minimize the measuring error caused by non-controlled distortions of the pulse shape, care has to be
taken that the conditions C0 < 200 pF and C0 < 0.1 Ca are satisfied. A simplified approach for the
evaluation of Ca is presented in Annex D. To avoid any superposition errors and thus to minimize the
impact of the pulse train response on the reading of the PD measuring instrument, the repetition frequency
of the calibrating pulses should be in the range of 100 Hz to 1000 Hz, inclusive.

The output impedance of the step pulse generator should not exceed 100 Ω. The rise time of the step pulse,
which refers to the 10% and 90% values of the maximum pulse magnitude, should be less than 100 ns.
After the peak is obtained the voltage magnitude should not differ more than ±5% from the mean value for
a time span not shorter than 50 µs. The decay time, which refers to the 90% and 10% values of the pulse
magnitude, should either be the same as the rise time, if bipolar calibrating pulses are created, or it should
exceed 200 µs if pulses of only positive or negative polarity are created.

To display the calibrating pulses when the actual PD test under high voltage is running, the calibrating
capacitor, C0, which is usually designed only for low voltages, should be substituted by an HV calibrating
capacitor, this should be PD-free up the maximum ac test voltage level. The measuring cable between the
step pulse generator and the terminating box connected to the input of the HV calibrating capacitor should

7
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IEEE Recommended Practice for Partial Discharge Measurement in
Liquid-Filled Power Transformers and Shunt Reactors

be matched with the characteristic cable impedance in order to avoid disturbing pulse reflections. Generally
the HV calibrating capacitor should be located as close as possible to the HV terminal of the test object.

The objective of the calibration procedure is to determine the scale factor, Sf, which represents the ratio
between the calibrating charge, q0, injected between the terminals of the test object, and the reading, R0, of
the PD measuring instrument [see Equation (3)]:

Sf = q0 / R0
(3)

To evaluate the apparent charge level, qa, under HV test conditions the reading, Ri, of the PD instrument is
multiplied by the scale factor, Sf [see Equation (4)]:

qa = Ri × Sf = q0 × R i / R0
(4)

This means the apparent charge level can be determined if the calibrating charge, q0, is multiplied by the
reading, Ri, due to PD events, and divided by the reading, R0, caused by the calibrating charge.

4.6 Maintaining the specified parameters of PD measuring circuits

To verify the specified technical parameters of the PD measuring circuits including the PD calibrator,
performance checks should be performed at least once a year and after repair. The scale factor, Sf, of the
PD measuring circuit and the values of the pulse charges, q0, created by the PD calibrator shall be kept in a
record of performance established and maintained by the user. Additionally, type tests, routine tests, and
performance tests should be performed in compliance with the recommendations of IEC 60270.

5. PD test procedure

5.1 Calibration

5.1.1 PD measuring circuit

Before starting the first HV test, the complete PD measuring circuit according to Figure 1 should be
calibrated to establish the scale factor, Sf; see 4.6. For calibration, all equipment should be set up exactly as
used during the PD test. If the test object is a three-phase transformer, the calibration should be performed
at each terminal in turn, while making sure that the PD measuring instrument is always connected to each
phase using either the bushing tap coupling mode or a separate coupling capacitor.

The calibrating pulses should be injected between the top of the HV bushing and the transformer tank, as
evident from Figure 1. Generally, a portable battery powered PD calibrator should be used. If desired, a
suitable pulse generator along with a terminating box connected to a suitable HV calibrating capacitor may
also be used in order to display the calibrating pulses during the running HV test, and to adjust the
magnitudes of the calibrating charge from the control room.

8
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IEEE Recommended Practice for Partial Discharge Measurement in
Liquid-Filled Power Transformers and Shunt Reactors

The connecting leads between the calibrator and test object should be kept as short as possible in order to
avoid pulse distortions that may cause calibration errors. Therefore, the portable calibrator or the
terminating box in connection with the HV calibrating capacitor should be placed as close as possible to the
HV terminals of the test object. At least four separate calibrating charge levels should be injected to check
the linearity of the PD measuring instrument. For a specified apparent charge level of qa = 500 pC, the
calibration should be performed with the values q01 = 100 pC, q02 = 200 pC, q03 = 500 pC, and q04 =
1000 pC.

5.1.2 AC test voltage measuring circuit

The ac test voltage measuring circuit should be calibrated in accordance with the requirements of
IEEE Std 4 as well as in compliance with IEC 60060-1 [B69] and IEC 60060-2 [B70]. If an ac voltage
measuring instrument is connected to the voltage output of the coupling device or to the bushing tap, either
the capacitive divider ratio should be determined as reported in Annex E, or the complete ac measuring
circuit should be calibrated using a reference measuring system.

5.2 PD measurement

5.2.1 PD test circuits

Figure 2 shows a circuit recommended for PD tests under induced voltage, i.e., the HV winding of the
single-phase power transformer is excited through the LV winding. The LV test voltage source should be
designed as specified in IEEE Std C57.12.00 and IEEE Std C57.12.90, which requires simulations of the
actual operating configuration.

An optional LV filter may be required to reduce interferences coming from the ac power supply. The HV
and LV connection leads should be kept as short as possible in order to minimize the inductance and thus to
reduce the impact of electromagnetic noises.

The coupling device, which is generally equipped with the measuring impedance and additional elements
for signal filtering and over-voltage protection as well as with the LV arm of the voltage divider, should be
placed as close as possible to the bushing tap. The signal outputs of the coupling device for the PD pulses
and the ac test voltage are connected via measuring cables to the PD measuring instrument and to an ac
voltmeter.

9
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IEEE Recommended Practice for Partial Discharge Measurement in
Liquid-Filled Power Transformers and Shunt Reactors

PD
Calibrator

B ushing
C1 Tap

C2 Coupling
Transform er
Device
Under Test
LV Filter
LV Test (Optional)
Voltage LV HV
Source

AC A C Test Voltage
Voltmeter
D isplay
Unit PD Pulses
PD
M easuring
Instrument

Figure 2 —PD measuring circuit for power transformers using induced test voltage

In addition to the reading instrument of the PD measuring instrument a display unit, such as a scope or a
computerized PD measuring system should be utilized, which may be useful not only for the identification
and classification of harmful PD sources (CIGRE TF 15.11/33.03.02 [B34], CIGRE WG 21-03 [B40],
CIGRE WG D1.33 [B41], Fuhr [B52], Fuhr et al. [B53], Fryxell et al. [B54]) but also for the discrimination
of disturbing noises in the surroundings.

Figure 3 shows a test circuit recommended for PD tests of power transformers and shunt reactors excited by
a step-up transformer. If an appropriately rated step-up transformer is not available, a series resonant test
circuit can also be used where the inductance of the test object is compensated by a capacitor bank. An
optional HV filter may be required on the HV side in order to minimize the impact of disturbing
interferences coming from the step-up transformer. Additionally a filter may be helpful for noise rejection
if positioned on the LV side of the step-up transformer.

5.2.2 Test procedure

The PD test procedure and the ac test voltage level applied should be as specified in IEEE Std C57.12.00,
IEEE Std C57.12.90, and IEEE Std C57.19.00. For the actual PD test, the ac test voltage level should first
be raised up to 50% of the rated voltage of the test object. The energized background noise should then be
evaluated in terms of pC and recorded for each phase for a time interval of 60 s, where the average
energized background noise level should not exceed a relative value of 50% of the specified apparent
charge level. The ac test voltage is then raised up to the one-hour test value and held constant long enough
to verify if there are any PD problems. The ac test voltage is then raised to the enhancement level and held
constant for 7200 cycles. The voltage is next reduced directly back to the one-hour test level and held
constant for 60 min or even more if desired. During the 60 min period for each bushing terminal, the
apparent charge level should be evaluated for a recording time of 60 s, which should be repeated at
subsequent intervals of 5 min.

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IEEE Recommended Practice for Partial Discharge Measurement in
Liquid-Filled Power Transformers and Shunt Reactors

HV Filter
(Optional)

PD
Calibrator

Bushing
C1 Tap

Coupling
Step-up Shunt Reactor
Device
Transformer Under Test
C2
LV Test
Voltage LV HV HV
Source

AC AC Test Voltage
Voltmeter
Display
Unit PD Pulses
PD
Measuring
Instrument

Figure 3 —PD measuring circuit for shunt reactors energized by a step-up transformer

5.2.3 Interpretation of PD test results

The PD test results should be considered acceptable and no further PD tests are required under the
following conditions:

a) The apparent charge level, qa, measured during the one-hour test does not exceed the specified
apparent charge level, qs, stated in IEEE Std C57.12.90 and IEEE Std C57.19.00.

b) The increase in the apparent charge level, qa, during the one-hour test does not exceed a value of
Δqs, as stated in IEEE Std C57.12.00, IEEE Std C57.12.90, and IEEE Std C57.19.00.

c) The apparent charge level, qa, during the one-our test period does not exhibit any steadily rising
trend, and no sudden sustained increase in the level occurs during the last 20 min of the test.

Judgment should be used on the 5 min test intervals so that momentary excursions of the PD readings
caused by cranes or other ambient sources are not recorded. The test may be extended or repeated until
acceptable results are obtained. A failure to meet the PD acceptance criterion should not warrant immediate
rejection but lead to consultation between the purchaser and manufacturer about further actions.

11
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Annex A

(informative)

Design of PD coupling units

A.1 Conventional coupling mode

PD measuring circuits in compliance with IEC 60270 are generally equipped with a separate coupling
capacitor, Ck, which is connected in series with measuring impedance, Zm; see Figure A.1. For wideband
measurement of the apparent charge the lower limit frequency, f1, should be chosen significantly above
50 kHz in order to minimize the impact of low-frequency noises, such as harmonics excited by the ac test
supply as well as iron core related noises. Because the PD coupling circuit unit illustrated schematically in
Figure A.1 represents a high-pass filter, it seems obvious to tune the desired lower limit frequency, f1, by
the relevant circuit parameters Ck, Rm, and Lm.

To
Ck

Zm
Ca

Rm Lm

Figure A.1—Conventional coupling unit using a separate coupling capacitor

Ca – Virtual test object capacitor
Ck – Coupling capacitor
Lm – Shunt inductor
Rm – Measuring resistor
To – Test object
Zm – Measuring impedance

For better understanding a practical example will be considered based on the following parameters:

⎯ Lower limit frequency: f1 = 70 kHz

⎯ Capacitance of the HV coupling capacitor: Ck = 1 nF

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IEEE Recommended Practice for Partial Discharge Measurement in
Liquid-Filled Power Transformers and Shunt Reactors

The lower limit frequency of the circuit according to Figure A.1 is given by Equation (A.1):

f1 = 1 / (2π × Ck × Rm)
(A.1)

Therefore the value in Equation (A.2) is required for the measuring resistor:

Rm = 1 / (2π × Ck × f1) = 2.27 kΩ

(A.2)

Under practical conditions, however, the ac test voltage applied may cause an HV magnitude across Rm,
which may become harmful not only for the PD measuring equipment but also for the operator. If, for
instance, an induced test is performed using a frequency of fac = 400 Hz, the capacitive impedance of the
coupling capacitor, Ck, is given by Equation (A.3):

Zc = 1 / (2π × Ck × fac) = 1 / (2π × 1 nF × 400 Hz) = 398 kΩ

(A.3)

Based on Equation (A.2) and Equation (A.3) the divider ratio is Dr = 2.27 kΩ / 398 kΩ = 1 / 174. That
means, an assumed ac test voltage magnitude of 800 kV would cause a peak voltage across Rm of almost
7000 V. This value can effectively be reduced if the resistor Rm is shunted by an inductor Lm; see Figure
A.1. In this context care has been taken that the lower cut-off frequency, f1, of the PD measuring circuit is
not decreased substantially. This requirement is accomplished by the condition shown in Equation (A.4):

Lm > 10 × Rm / (2π × 70 kHz) = 53 mH

(A.4)

From the previous example, where a test frequency of fac= 400 Hz was assumed, the inductive impedance
becomes, as shown in Equation (A.5):

Zl = 2π × 400 Hz × Lm = 130 Ω
(A.5)

Therefore, the divider ratio is given by Dr =130 Ω / 398 kΩ = 1 / 3060. That means that an ac test voltage
level of 800 kV is attenuated from a value of originally 7000 V down to about 400 V, which can well be
accepted.

To record the PD pulses in a phase-resolved manner using a display unit, such as a scope or a computer-
based PD measuring system, the PD coupling unit can be configured accordingly, as illustrated in
Figure A.2. Here the LV arm of the capacitive divider is represented by a measuring capacitor designated
as Cm. Due to the very different frequency spectra of the PD pulses and the ac test voltage, both signals
appear completely separated at the both outputs: PD and ac. The resulting impedance of the parallel
connection of the circuit elements Rm and Lm is mainly governed by the inductive impedance Zl = 130 Ω;
see Equation (A.5). Consequently the impact of this circuit on the phase shifting of the ac test voltage can
be neglected due to the much higher impedance of Ck which is Zc = 398 kΩ; see Equation (A.3).
Therefore, the desired divider ratio can simply be approximated by Dr = Ck / Cm. For an assumed voltage
divider ratio of Dr = 1 / 10 000 follows, for instance, a value for the measuring capacitor of:

13
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IEEE Recommended Practice for Partial Discharge Measurement in
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Cm = 10000 × Ck = 10000 × 1 nF = 10 µF
(A.6)

To
Ck

Dc
Ca
PD
Rm

Lm

AC
Cm
GD

Figure A.2—PD coupling device equipped with a measuring capacitor for displaying the
ac test voltage
AC – Output for ac test voltage
Ca – Virtual test object capacitor
Ck – Coupling capacitor
Cm – Measuring capacitor
Dc – Coupling device
GD – Ground termination
Lm — Shunt inductor
PD – Output for PD pulses

A.2 Bushing tap coupling mode

If instead of a separate coupling capacitor, Ck, the capacitance between the HV conductor and bushing tap,
C1, is utilized for capturing the PD transients, it has to be taken into consideration that the capacitance
between bushing tap and grounded bushing flange, C2, may affect the frequency response, as will be
discussed more in detail in the following. The main circuit elements of the bushing tap coupling mode are
illustrated in Figure A.3. For the following considerations, first the impact of the shunt inductor, Lm, shall
be neglected. Therefore the lower limit frequency of this network can be expressed by Equation (A.7):

f1 = 1 / (2π × Rm × (C1 + C2))

(A.7)

The value of C1 is given by the bushing utilized for the decoupling of the PD signal. This parameter can
therefore not be varied. Consequently it can only be adjusted by varying the measuring resistor, Rm, as
well as by an additional capacitor connected parallel to C2. For better understanding consider the following
practical example:

14
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⎯ Desired lower limit frequency: f1 = 70 kHz

⎯ Capacitance between HV conductor and bushing tap: C1= 500 pF

⎯ Capacitance between busing tap and grounded bushing flange: C2= 2500 pF

Bu
To

C1
Zm
Ca
Bt

C2 Rm Lm

Figure A.3—Equivalent circuit of the bushing tap coupling mode

Bu – Bushing
Bt – Bushing tap
C1 – Capacitance between HV conductor and bushing tap
C2 – Capacitance between bushing tap and grounded bushing flange
Ca – Virtual test object capacitance
Lm – Shunt inductor
Rm – Measuring resistor
To – Test object
Zm – Measuring impedance

Inserting these values in Equation (A.7) we get Rm ≈ 760 Ω. To avoid a reduction of f1 by the frequency
dependent impedance of, Lm, the condition Zl > 10 Rm at f1 = 70 kHz should be satisfied, which is fulfilled
for Lm > 17 mH.

To estimate the portion of the ac test voltage magnitude appearing across the shunt inductor, Lm, and thus
across the measuring impedance, Zm, a maximum test frequency of fac= 400 Hz should be assumed. Under
this condition the frequency dependent impedances of Lm and C1 are given by Zl ≈ 43 Ω and Zc ≈
795 kΩ, respectively. Consequently the divider ratio is given by Dr = 43 Ω / 795 kΩ ≈ 1 / 18 000. That
means a maximum ac test voltage level of, for instance, 800 kV is attenuated down to about 45 V, which is
harmless for the instrumentation and the operator as well.

15
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IEEE Recommended Practice for Partial Discharge Measurement in
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The bushing tap coupling mode also provides a convenient tool for displaying the ac test voltage, as
illustrated in Figure A.4. For C1 = 500 pF the measuring capacitance should be Cm = 5 µF, if a voltage
divider ratio of Dr = 1 / 10 000 is desired.

Bu
To

C1
Zm
Ca
Bt
PD

C2 Rm Lm

AC
Cm

GD

Figure A.4—Bushing tap coupling mode capable for displaying the ac test voltage
Bu – Bushing
Bt – Bushing tap
C1 – Capacitance between HV conductor and bushing tap
C2 – Capacitance between bushing tap and grounded bushing flange
Ca – Virtual test object capacitance
Cm – Measuring capacitor
GD – Ground connection
Lm – Shunt inductor
Rm – Measuring resistor
To – Test object
Zm – Measuring impedance

16
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IEEE Recommended Practice for Partial Discharge Measurement in
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Annex B

(informative)

Response of PD measuring instruments

B.1 Frequency response

Due to the high-pass filter characteristics of the PD coupling unit, see Annex A, the voltage jump appearing
across the terminals of the test object as a result of a PD event is differentiated. Therefore, this signal
should be integrated again in order to evaluate the apparent charge of the captured PD pulses. The
integration can be performed at sufficient accuracy if the measuring frequency is chosen below 500 kHz,
where the amplitude frequency spectrum of the PD pulses is nearly constant (Schon [B132], [B133],
[B134]); see Figure B.1. Under this condition the output signal of the PD measuring instrument is a pulse
whose magnitude is a measure of the charge of the input pulse. It should be noted that the duration of the
output pulse to be evaluated is much longer than those of the input PD pulse.

Amplitude

A
0 dB

- 6 dB

B B

f1 f2 Frequency

Figure B.1—Selection of the band-pass filter characteristics for PD instruments

A – Amplitude-frequency spectrum of PD pulses
B – Band-pass filter characteristics of the PD measuring instrument

B.2 Pulse train response

PD events occurring under ac test voltages are characterized by pulse sequences whose magnitudes may
randomly be distributed over an extremely wide range. An example is illustrated in Figure B.2, which
reveals that the magnitudes of the apparent charge pulses scatter between about 100 pC and 3000 pC.

17
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IEEE Recommended Practice for Partial Discharge Measurement in
Liquid-Filled Power Transformers and Shunt Reactors

a) Elliptical time scale b) Linear time scale

c) Phase-resolved PD pulse pattern d) Time-dependent PD pulse magnitudes

Figure B.2—PD signatures of surface discharges in a power transformer displayed for one
cycle (a and b) and for 3000 s (c and d) of the applied ac test voltage

To ensure comparable and well-reproducible PD test results, it seems therefore feasible to average the
randomly distributed PD pulse magnitudes. As a consequence, in IEC 60270 the evaluation of the “largest
repeatedly occurring PD magnitude” is recommended. This PD quantity is equivalent to the “apparent
charge level” as defined in this recommended practice; see specified apparent charge level in Clause 3.

As can be seen from Figure B.3, after the maximum PD magnitudes are averaged, the apparent charge level
can well be quantified by a value of approximately 2800 pC. This approach is based on a specified pulse
train response of the PD measuring instrument shown in Figure B.4, where the tolerance band is well fitted
for the condition τ1 << τ2 < 440 ms. Here is τ1 the charging time constant and τ2 the discharging time
constant of the peak detector as part of the PD measuring instrument. It should be mentioned that CISPR
16-1-1993 [B42] also recommends an averaging of random distributed noise pulses where the characteristic
time constants are specified by τ1 < 1 ms and τ2 < 160 ms.

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IEEE Recommended Practice for Partial Discharge Measurement in
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a) Maximum magnitudes of subsequent PD pulse sequences

b)

b) Maximum PD magnitudes averaged in compliance with IEC 60270

Figure B.3—Evaluation of the apparent charge level, recording time 300 s

120
Rma
100

Rmin
Reading R [%]

80

60

40

20

0
1 10 100
Pulse repetition rate N [1/s]

Figure B.4—Maximum and minimum reading, Rmax and Rmin, of PD instruments versus the
pulse repetition rate, N, recommended in IEC 60270

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Annex C

(informative)

Calibration of PD measuring circuits

The objective of the calibration is to determine the scale factor, Sf, required for evaluating the apparent
charge level, qa, from the reading of the PD measuring instrument, Ri, as shown in Equation (C.1):

qa = Ri × Sf
(C.1)

This procedure is in principle based on a simulation of the charge transfer from the PD source to the
terminals of the test object. For this purpose artificial PD pulses are injected between the terminals of the
test object by means of a calibrator (Lemke [B92], Lemke et al. [B94]); see Figure 1. The scale factor, Sf, is
determined from the ratio between the calibrating charge, q0, and the reading of the PD measuring
instrument, R0. Therefore, Sf is expressed either in terms of pC/scale of the reading instrument or in terms
of pC/div of the display unit.

For better understanding, consider the following practical example:

Calibrating charge injected between the terminals of the test object: q0 = 200 pC
Reading of the PD instrument: R0 = 50 scales
Resulting scale factor: Sf = q0 / R0 = 4 pC /scale
Reading of the PD instrument during the actual PD test: Ri = 20 scales

Based on these values, the apparent charge can be calculated as shown in Equation (C.2):

qa = Ri × Sf = (20 scales) × (4 pC /scale) = 80 pC

(C.2)

It should be noted that advanced computerized PD measuring instruments are equipped with a feature to
scale the PD data in terms of pC automatically after the calibration procedure has been performed.

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Annex D

(informative)

Basic sensitivity check

To check the basic sensitivity of the PD measuring instrument, the circuit shown in Figure D.1 could be
utilized. Here the virtual test object capacitance, Ca, is simulated by an LV capacitor having a value of
10 000 pF. Furthermore, the capacitance between the HV conductor and the bushing tap, C1, and the
capacitance between the bushing tap and the grounded bushing flange, C2, are simulated by an LV
capacitors having values of, for instance, C1 = 500 pF and C2 = 2500 pF, respectively. The measuring
impedance, Zm, of the PD measuring circuit is connected to the junction of C1 and C2, which represents
the bushing tap coupling mode.

The sensitivity should be such that when a calibrating charge of 25 pC is injected into Ca the reading of the
PD measuring instrument exceeds at least twice the internal amplifier noise level. This basic sensitivity
check needs only to be performed when installing a new PD measuring system and at specified time
intervals, i.e., after each year and after repair or modification of the components of the PD measuring
circuit.

C1
C0 PD Measuring
Measuring
calibrator instrument
Ca cable

U0 Zm
C2

Figure D.1—Circuit recommended for the basic sensitivity check

The circuit illustrated in Figure D.1 could also be utilized for an estimation of the virtual test object
capacitance, Ca, if the internal capacitance of the calibrator, C0, is known. This can be done by the
following three steps:

1. With all the equipment configured exactly as it shall be during the PD test, a calibrating charge of
approximately 500 pC should be injected into the terminals of the test object, which is represented in
Figure D.1 by Ca. The reading, R1, of the PD measuring instrument should be noted.

2. After connecting an additional capacitor, Cp, of 1000 pF in parallel to the output of the calibrator,
the appearing reading, R2, should also be noted.

21
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IEEE Recommended Practice for Partial Discharge Measurement in
Liquid-Filled Power Transformers and Shunt Reactors

3. A reading ratio of R2 / R1 > 0.8 indicates that Ca is fairly high, and the procedure should be
repeated with the parallel capacitance, Cp, increased 10 times, i.e., from originally 1000 pF up to
10 000 pF.
The value of the virtual test object capacitance, Ca, may then be assessed applying the approximation
shown in Equation (D.1):

Ca = ((Cp × R2) / (R1 – R2)) – C0

(D.1)

22
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Annex E

(informative)

Bushing tap ratio measurement

To display phase-resolved PD patterns, a low ac voltage component should be available having the same
phase angle as the applied ac test voltage in order to synchronize the display unit. The most convenient way
is to capture the ac signal from the bushing tap. To evaluate the appearing output voltage magnitude, the
ratio of the capacitive divider formed by the capacitance between the HV conductor of the bushing and the
bushing tap, C1, and the capacitance between the bushing tap and grounded bushing flange, C2, should be
known. From this it can be determined whether the maximum ac voltage magnitude appearing at the
bushing tap can be accepted for the measuring purpose or if it should be reduced by means of an additional
measuring capacitor, C3, connected in parallel to C2.

The capacitive divider ratio of the bushing may also be measured directly for the applied ac test voltage by
means of a suitable ratio bridge. The value usually ranges between 1:10 000 and 1:50 000. As an option, an
appropriate device specified in IEEE Std 4 for alternating voltage measurement can also be connected
directly to the HV bushing terminal. For this case the bushing tap output voltage should be measured by
means of an ac voltmeter having an input impedance of more than 1 MΩ. After energizing the transformer
up to the desired ac test voltage level, the output voltage is measured. The bushing tap ratio can then be
calculated by dividing the magnitude of the low voltage through the magnitude of the applied ac test
voltage.

23
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IEEE Recommended Practice for Partial Discharge Measurement in
Liquid-Filled Power Transformers and Shunt Reactors

Annex F

(informative)

Noise identification

During PD tests of power transformers and shunt reactors, excessive electromagnetic noises may be
encountered, such as pulse-shaped noises due to external PDs and surges of switchgears and power
electronics as well as continuous radio frequency noises radiated from broadcast stations. In this context it
should be noted that one of the greatest advantages of the wideband method is the ease with which the
electromagnetic disturbances can be displayed and thus be discriminated from the PD signal. Characteristic
noise signatures are displayed in Figure F.1.

Figure F.1(a) refers to corona discharges ignited from protrusions on the surface of HV electrodes in
ambient air. Such discharges can easily be identified because after exceeding the inception voltage they
appear only in one half-cycle of the applied ac test voltage. If such discharges ignite on HV electrodes they
can either be eliminated by cleaning of the electrode surface or by increasing the electrode curvature radius.
To avoid disturbing PD events from grounded electrodes, the curvature radius should also be enlarged,
which could be done by additional metallic shields or by covering the critical protrusions with semi-
conductive material, such as rubber.

The noise signatures shown in the left record of Figure F.1(b) may occur when ungrounded (floating)
metallic objects are present and thus charged and discharged via the stray capacitance coupled to the HV
electrode of the test object. Typically, regular pulse sequences may appear close to the zero-crossing of the
ac test voltage where the pulse magnitudes in both half-cycles are often well comparable. The obvious
solution in this case is to remove as many loose objects as possible from the surroundings of the test object
and grounding the rest, especially metallic fences. The right record shown in Figure F.1(b) refers to a faulty
metallic contact of a connection lead, which may happen outside or inside the test object due to corrosion.
In most cases, the appearance of such discharges is comparable to those caused by floating electrodes; but
the pulse repetition rate may become significantly higher.

Signatures of external interference due to electromagnetic transients in the power network are shown in the
left record of Figure F.1(c). The regular pulses evident from the left figure are caused by power electronics,
due to a 6-pulse thyristor switch of an ac/dc converter. The disturbing pulses can easily be identified
because they are equally spaced and roughly of the same amplitude. If the test voltage frequency is
different from the power frequency, the pulses appear running because they are not synchronized to the ac
test voltage. In practice, two to six pulses can be observed during one ac test voltage cycle, even though
fewer than two pulses may occur. This is due to the fact that the eye tends to see many superimposed cycles
at the same time. An example of external interferences due to permanent occurring radio noises are
exemplarily displayed in the right record of Figure F.1(c). To avoid such disturbances electromagnetically
shielded test areas are widely used. In addition, well-grounded metallic grid structures could be helpful.
The grounding impedance in the high-frequency range could be reduced effectively by means of copper
foil.

In some cases, however, the noise level cannot be rejected completely, as illustrated in Figure F.1(d). One
kind of noise remained even if after the grounding condition of a power transformer under test was
substantially improved. The records reveal that the noisy pulses are phase-correlated to the applied ac test
voltage, which is also typical for real PD events. Finally, a xenon lamp installed nearby the test area was
identified as the noise source.

24
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IEEE Recommended Practice for Partial Discharge Measurement in
Liquid-Filled Power Transformers and Shunt Reactors

Metallic protrusion at HV electrode Metallic protrusion at LV electrode

a) Corona in ambient air (Trichel discharges)

Ungrounded (floating) electrode Bad contact between HV connection leads

b) Sparks between metallic parts

Noise caused by power electronics Radio noises received from a broadcast station
c) External interferences

Screenshot of one individual ac cycle Phase-resolved PD pattern, recording time of 60

d) Xenon lamp in the measuring surroundings

Figure F.1—Signatures of electromagnetic interferences encountered during PD tests

25
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For the identification and localization of electromagnetic noises, the following general rules may be
helpful:

1. External noises appear often independent from the applied ac test voltage level and thus do not
disappear if the test voltage level is lowered, as the PD events do.
2. Pulse-shaped noises may appear unsynchronized with the applied ac test voltage, whereas PD
pulses occur always phase-correlated.
In this context it should be noted that advanced computer-based PD measuring systems are equipped with
powerful features for the recognition and rejection of disturbing noises.

26
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IEEE Recommended Practice for Partial Discharge Measurement in
Liquid-Filled Power Transformers and Shunt Reactors

Annex G

(informative)

PD pattern recognition

Characteristic signatures of PDs in liquid-filled power transformers and shunt reactors have been published
in many papers, for instance in (CIGRE TF 15.11/33/03/02 [B34], CIGRE WG 21-03 [B39], CIGRE 21-03
[B40], Fuhr [B52], Fuhr et al. [B53]). To emphasize the very complex nature of PDs two characteristic
measuring examples are presented in the following.

Figure G.1(a) refers to creeping discharges in a power transformer, which reveals that in the positive half-
cycle the characteristic PD pulse sequences appear at rising ac test voltage and disappear shortly after the
positive peak value is achieved. In the negative half-cycle the PD pulses ignite at falling ac test voltage and
disappear after the negative peak value is reached. Moreover, the PD events ignite simultaneously in both
half-cycles after the PD inception voltage is achieved. This phenomenon is different from corona
discharges in air because the positive discharges appear at a test voltage level significantly above the
inception voltage of the negative Trichel discharges; see Figure F.1(a). Furthermore, the pulse magnitudes
scatter over an extremely wide range and differ substantially for both half-cycles.

27
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IEEE Recommended Practice for Partial Discharge Measurement in
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Screenshot of one individual ac cycle Phase-resolved PD pattern, recording time 120 s

a) Discharges in gas bubbles in transformer oil

b) Creeping discharges in a power transformer

Figure G.1—Characteristic signatures of PD defects in power transformers

Another measuring example is illustrated in Figure G.1(b) which refers to discharges in gas bubbles in
transformer oil. The PD signatures are very different from those of surface discharges. So the PD inception
and extinction voltages are characterized by an excessive hysteresis, and the PD extinction voltage may
substantially decrease after longer stressing time. Moreover, the PD events may suddenly disappear even if
the ac test voltage remains constant. Finally the PD events may ignite thereafter again. Such very complex
PD phenomena have to be taken into account for assessment of the insulation condition of liquid-filled
power transformers and shunt reactors.

28
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Annex H

(informative)

Bibliography

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[B2] ANSI C63.2-1987, American National Standard Specifications for Electromagnetic Noise and Field-
Strength Meters, 10 Hz to 40 GHz. 8
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8
ANSI publications are available from the Customer Service Department, American National Standards Institute, 25 W. 43rd Street,
4th Floor, New York, NY 10036, USA (http://www.ansi.org/).
9
ASTM publications are available from the American Society for Testing and Materials, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken,
PA 19428-2959, USA (http://www.astm.org/).

29
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IEEE Recommended Practice for Partial Discharge Measurement in
Liquid-Filled Power Transformers and Shunt Reactors

[B17] Bertula, T., Palva, V., and Talvio, E., “Partial Discharge Measurement on Oil-Paper Insulated
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[B24] Boyles, C. R., and Hinton, R. A., “Seven Years of Corona Testing,” Paper no. 70 CP120-PWR,
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Discharge at Site in Transformer Windings,” Paper no. 63.08, Fourth International Symposium on High-
Voltage Engineering, Athens, Greece, Sept. 5–9, 1983.
[B29] Channakeshava, Gururaj, B. I., and Jayaram, B. N., “Studies on Partial Discharge Measurement in
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[B31] CIGRE JWG 15.01.04, “Characterization of Partial Discharges in Transformer Insulation,” Paper
15.01.04, Session Paris, Aug. 2000.
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Apparatus,” Session Paris, Aug. 1996.
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Nov. 1971.
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Instruments,” Electra, no. 180, pp. 123-124, Oct. 1998.
[B36] CIGRE WG 03, “Elimination of Interference in Discharge Detection,” Electra, no. 21, pp. 55–72.

30
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IEEE Recommended Practice for Partial Discharge Measurement in
Liquid-Filled Power Transformers and Shunt Reactors

[B37] CIGRE WG 12-01, “General Report of Group 12-01, Electra, no. 37, pp. 64–74, Dec. 1974.
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47, July 1976.
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60270,” Technical Brochure 366, Electra, vol. 60, no. 241, Dec. 2008.
[B42] CISPR 16-1-1993, Comité International Spécial des Perturbation Radioélectrique. 10
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Transformers,” CIGRE paper 12-11, Sept. 1–9, 1982.
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Recorders for Corona Measurement,” IEEE Transactions on Electrical Insulation, vol. EI-2, no. 2, pp. 75–
82, Aug. 1967.
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Techniques for 500 kV Shunt Reactors,” International Symposium on High Voltage Engineering, paper
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Laboratory,” International Symposium on High Voltage Engineering, paper P.02.07, Delft, Aug. 2003.
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12-04, June 10–20, 1968.
[B55] Gailhofer, G., Kury, H., and Rabus, W., “Partial Discharge Measurements on Power Transformer
Insulation, Principles and Practice,” CIGRE paper 12-15 June, 10–20, 1968.
[B56] Gänger, B., and Vorwerk, H. J. “Ionization Measurements on Transformers,” The Brown Boveri
Review, vol. 54, no. 7, pp. 355–367, July 1967.

10
CISPR documents are available from the Central Office of the International Electrotechnical Commission, 3, rue de Varembé, P.O.
Box 131, CH-1211, Geneva 20, Switzerland (http://www.iec.ch/). They are also available in the United States from the Sales
Department, American National Standards Institute, 25 West 43rd Street, 4th Floor, New York, NY 10036, USA
(http://www.ansi.org/).

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Liquid-Filled Power Transformers and Shunt Reactors

[B57] Gao, W., Tan, K., Zheng, Q., “Study on Quantification Method of Partial Discharge in Winding of
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Problems,” CIGRE paper no. 104, May 1962.
[B69] IEC 60060-1, High-voltage test techniques―Part 1: General definitions and test requirements. 11
[B70] IEC 60060-2, High voltage test techniques―Part 2: Measuring systems.
[B71] IEC 60076-3, Power Transformers―Part 3: Insulation Levels, Dielectric Tests, and External
Clearances in Air.
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1191, Oct. 1967. 12
[B73] IEEE Committee Report, “Tests for Damaging Corona on Oil-Insulated Transformers,” IEEE
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-86, no. 12, pp. 1592–1595, Dec. 1967.

11
IEC publications are available from the Central Office of the International Electrotechnical Commission, 3, rue de Varembé, P.O.
Box 131, CH-1211, Geneva 20, Switzerland (http://www.iec.ch/). IEC publications are also available in the United States from the
Sales Department, American National Standards Institute, 25 West 43rd Street, 4th Floor, New York, NY 10036, USA
(http://www.ansi.org/).
12
IEEE publications are available from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 445 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854,
USA (http://standards.ieee.org).

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Liquid-Filled Power Transformers and Shunt Reactors

[B74] Ikeda, M., Yanari, T., and Okubo, H., “PD and BD Probability Distribution and Equi-Probabilistic
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33
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IEEE Std C57.113-2010
IEEE Recommended Practice for Partial Discharge Measurement in
Liquid-Filled Power Transformers and Shunt Reactors

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34
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IEEE Std C57.113-2010
IEEE Recommended Practice for Partial Discharge Measurement in
Liquid-Filled Power Transformers and Shunt Reactors

[B112] NEMA TR1-1993 (R2000), Transformers, Regulators, and Reactors. 13

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13
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(http://global.ihs.com/).

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IEEE Recommended Practice for Partial Discharge Measurement in
Liquid-Filled Power Transformers and Shunt Reactors

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36
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IEEE Std C57.113-2010
IEEE Recommended Practice for Partial Discharge Measurement in
Liquid-Filled Power Transformers and Shunt Reactors

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37
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