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PART ONE: GENERAL ENGLISH

CHAPTER ONE: SOUNDS OF ENGLISH

English sounds are generally categorized into two classes: vowel

sounds and consonant sounds. Unlike the letters of the alphabet, sounds
are used in speaking. They are listed and discussed as follows:

1.1 VOWEL SOUNDS

What are the English Vowel Sound IPA symbols (International Phonetic
Alphabet)? English has 12 pure vowel sounds, 8diphthongs and 5
triphthongs.

The pure vowels are classified in two groups:

a) Short vowels in the IPA are:

/ɪ/ – fit /fiːt/, pick /piːk/, difficult /ˈdɪ.fɪ.kəlt/

/e/ – pet /pet/, sent /sent/, attention /əˈten.ʃən/

/æ/ – pat /pæt/, flat /flæt/, family /ˈfæ.mə.li/

/ʌ/ – cut /kʌt/ jump /dʒʌmp/, cover /ˈkʌ.vər/

/ʊ/ – put /pʊt/, book /bʊk/, cushion /ˈkʊ.ʃən/

/ɒ/ – pot /pɒt/, dog /dɒg/, hospital /ˈhɒs.pɪ.təl/

/ə/ – about /əˈbaʊt/, system /ˈsɪs.təm/, complete /kəmˈpliːt/.

b) Long vowels in the IPA are:

/i:/ week /wi:k/, feet /fi:t/, media /ˈmiː.di.jə/

/ɑ:/ hard /ha:/, park /pa:k/, article /ɑː.tɪ.kəl/

/ɔ:/ fork /fɔ:k/, walk /wɔ:k/, August /ɔːˈɡʌst/

/ɜ:/ heard /hɜ:d/, word /wɜ:d/, surface /ˈsɜː.fɪs/

/u:/ boot /bu:t/, group /gru:p/, beautiful /ˈbjuː.tɪ.fəl/

c) The English Diphthong vowels (double) in the IPA are:

/eɪ/ : place /pleɪs/, late /leɪt/, dangerous /ˈdeɪn.dʒə.rəs/

/oʊ/ : home /hoʊm/, phone /foʊn/, global /ˈɡloʊ.bəl/

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/aʊ/ : mouse /maʊs/, brown /braʊn/, accountant /əˈkaʊn.t̬ənt/

/ɪə/ : clear /klɪə/, fear /fɪə/, career /kəˈrɪə/

/eə/ : care /keə/, wear /weə/, declare /dɪˈkleə/

/ɔɪ/ : boy /bɔɪ/, toy /tɔɪ/, enjoyable /ɪnˈdʒɔɪ.jə.bəl/

/aɪ/ : find /faɪnd/, bite /baɪt/, tiger /ˈtaɪ.ɡə/

/ʊə/ : tour /tʊə/, pure /pʊə/, mature /məˈtʃʊə/

d) The English Triphthong vowels in the IPA are:

aʊ/ + /ə/ = [aʊə] hour
/aɪ/ + /ə/ = [aɪə] fire
/eɪ/ + /ə/ = [eɪə] player
/əʊ/ + /ə/ = [əʊə] mower
/ɔɪ/ + /ə/ = [ɔɪə] employer

1.2 . CONSONANT SOUNDS

The English language has 24 consonant sounds. They are presented as

below:

/p/ : pet /pet/ paper /ˈpeɪ.pə/ top /tɒp/

/b/ : bet /bet/ trouble /ˈtrʌ.bəl/ rub /rʌb/

/t/ : Tim /tɪm/ better /ˈbe.tə/ hot /hɒt/

/d/ : dim /dɪm/ order /ˈɔː.də/ bad /bæd/

/k/ : came /keɪm/ talking /ˈtɔː.kɪŋ/ back /bæk/

/g/ : game /geɪm/ bigger /ˈbɪ.gə/ bag /bæg/

/f/ : fine /faɪn/ offer /ˈɒf.ə/ off /ɒf/

/v/ : vine /vaɪn/ saving /ˈseɪ.vɪŋ/ of /ɒv/

/s/ : seal /si:l/ missing /ˈmɪ.sɪŋ/ face /feɪs/

/z/ : zeal /zi:l/ crazy /ˈkreɪ.zi/ phase /feɪz/

/ʃ/ : show /ʃoʊ/ pushing /ˈpʊ.ʃɪŋ/ rush /rʌʃ/

/ʒ/ : measure /ˈme.ʒə/ vision /ˈvɪ.ʒən/ asia /ˈeɪ.ʒə/

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/ʧ/ : choke /ʧoʊk/ watching /wɒ.tʃɪŋ/ catch /kætʃ/

/ʤ/ : joke /ʤoʊk/ damage /ˈdæ.mɪdʒ/ large /lɑːdʒ/

/θ/ : thin /θɪn/ method /ˈme.θəd/ both /boʊθ/

/ð / : then /ðen/ other /ˈʌ.ðə/ with /wɪð/

/l/ : love /lʌv/ follow /ˈfɒː.loʊ/ well /wel/

/m/ : mail /meɪl/ humour /ˈhjuː.mə/ some /sʌm/

/n/ : nail /neɪl/ funny /ˈfʌ.ni/ fine /faɪn/

/ŋ/ : sing /sɪŋ/ singer /ˈsɪ.ŋə/

/h/ : heal /hi:l/ perhaps /pəˈhæps/

/r/ : real /ri:l/ correct /kəˈrekt/

/j/ : you /ju:/ beyond /biˈjɒnd/

/w/ : we /wi/ showing /ˈʃoʊ.wɪŋ/

I.3. MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSIONS

Where there are two readings, the first is generally more formal or
technical

+ : plus / and

- : minus / take away

± : plus or minus

× : (is) multiplied by

= : is equal to / equals to

≅ : is approximately equal to

≠ : is not equal to / does not equal

≡ : is equivalent to / is identical with

< : is less than

≤ : is less than or equal to

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> : is more than

≥ : is more than or equal to

% : per cent

∞ : infinity

√ : square root

∛ : cube root

x2 : x (eks) squared

x3 : x (eks) cubed

x4 : x (eks) to the power of four / to the fourth

II. SOME ENGLISH GRAMATICAL STRUCTURES

II.1. THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

II.1.1. USE
How do we use the simple present tense?
The simple present is a verb tense with two main uses. We use the simple
present tense when an action is happening right now, or when it happens
regularly. Depending on the person, the simple present tense is formed
by using the root form or by adding “s” or “es” to the end.
e.g.: - I feel great!
- Pauline loves pie.
- I’m sorry to hear that you’re sick.
The other is to talk about habitual actions or occurrences.
e.g.: - Pauline practices the piano every day.
- Ms. Jackson travels during the summer.

II.1.2. FORM
How do we make the simple present negative?
The formula for making a simple present verb negative
is do/does + not + [root form of verb]. You can also use the
contraction don’t or doesn’t instead of do not or does not.
e.g.: - Pauline does not want to share the pie.
- She doesn’t think there is enough to go around.
- Her friends do not agree.
- I don’t want pie anyway.
To make the verb to be negative, the formula is [to be] + not.
e.g.: I am not a pie lover, but Pauline sure is.
You aren’t ready for such delicious pie.
How to ask a question
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The formula for asking a question in the simple present is do/does +

[subject] + [root form of verb].
e.g.: Do you know how to bake a pie?
How much does Pauline love pie?

II.2. THE PROGRESSIVE TENSES

Progressive tenses express actions that are unfinished or in

progress. There are three progressive verb tenses: the past progressive,
the present progressive, and the future progressive. Progressive tenses
are the same as continuous tenses.

TYPES OF PROGRESSIVE TENSES

There are three progressive tenses in English: the past progressive, the
present progressive, and the future progressive tenses.

II.2.1: PAST PROGRESSIVE

What is the past progressive tense? The past progressive expresses

events that lasted for a duration of time in the past.

The form of the past progressive:

Subject + was/were + present participle (and “-ing” to end of the
verb)
The past progressive is used to express:
a) duration
e.g. : I was reading.
b) interrupted actions in progress
e.g.: I was reading when he arrived.
c) actions happening at the same time
e.g.: I was lying on the bed while I was reading.
d) polite question
e.g.: He was wondering if you could assist him.

II.2.2. : PRESENT PROGRESSIVE TENSE

What is the present progressive tense? The present progressive expresses

actions that are happening now or that are in progress.

The form of the present progressive:

Subject + am/is/are + present participle (and “-ing” to end of the
verb)
The present progressive is used to express:
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a) actions that are happening now

e.g. : Maria is watching television.
b) actions that are in progress
e.g.: We are choreographing a dance.

II.2.3. : FUTURE PROGRESSIVE TENSE

What is the future progressive tense? The future progressive usually

expresses actions that will be happening (that subject will be in progress
doing) at some point in the future.

The form of the future progressive:

Subject + will be + present participle (and “-ing” to end of the verb)

The future progressive is used to express future actions in progress.

e.g.: I will be finishing college next year.
They will be vacationing soon.

III. GREETINGS AND LEAVE TAKINGS

Greetings and leave-takings are expressed by means of stereotyped expressions

and one has to learn them by heart. In addition, they are divided into polite (formal)
and familiar (informal).

A) Formal greetings

A: Good morning sir/madam B: Good morning,

A: Good afternoon Sir/madam B: Good afternoon.

B: Good evening.
A: Good evening sir/madam

Note: The expression Good night, said before going, to bed is a wish and not a
greeting. Therefore we have the following exchange:

A: Good night Francis B: Thank you, the same to you

B) Informal greetings
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A: Hello Sophie! B: Hello James (familiar)

A: Hi Liz!
B: Hi Tom (very familiar)

C) Sending greetings to a third person

- Please remember me to..., - O.K. I will.

- Do the same to Mary...
- Give my love / regards to your wife/
children

- Say hello to Jane.

D) Greetings on special occasions, etc.

-Cheers! (While drinking and clinking/ chinking glasses)

- Merry Christmas/ I wish you a Merry Christmas

- Happy birth day (to you),

- Happy New Year,

- Enjoy your meal/drink

- Have a good job

- Have a good time

- I wish you a quick recovery

- Get well soon

E) Greetings on introduction

A: How do you do? (Formal) A: How do you do!

A: Glad to meet you! A: Glad to meet you, too!
A: Nice to meet you! A: Nice to meet you, too!
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A: Pleased to meet you! A: Pleased to meet you, too!

A: Happy to meet you! A: Happy to meet you, too!
A: Hello! A: Hello!

I. THANKS

Following are some formulaic expressions used to thank someone and their
possible answers:

- Thank you - Not at all

- Thanks very much - That’s alright

- Many thanks. - You’re welcome.

- Thank you very much - Don’t mention it.

IV. APOLOGIES

The following formulas are used: (I’m) sorry. I beg your pardon. Excuse me.

Excuse me (British English) is used for attracting someone’s attention, for interrupting
for sneezing, for pushing in front of somebody.

I beg your pardon is used when by chance we have trodden on someone’s toe, etc.

When someone makes apologies, we can say in reaction: That’s alright/ please don’t
worry, take it easy, never mind.

Sorry is used when we aren’t in a position (or mood) to do something as shown below.

A: Could you give me a blue pen please? B: Sorry, I haven’t got a blue pen.

V. CONGRATULATIONS

- May I/we congratulate you on your recent appointment? (Formal)

- I was delighted to hear about...

- Congratulations on your engagement

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- Well done! (Familiar) (For a success or achievement)

VI. CONDOLENCES

- Please accept my deepest sympathy on the death of your father (formal)

- I (was extremely) sorry to hear about your father (informal)

VII. QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

Questions may generally be classified into three types: yes-no questions, alternative
questions, and wh-questions, also known as information questions or question word
questions.

A) Yes-no questions

These are questions whose answer begins with yes or no.

A: Is the dinner nearly ready? B: No, it isn’t. It’s not cooked yet.

A: Do you like English? B: Yes, I do.

In this category are classed tag questions.

- You are a student, aren’t you? - Yes, I am.

- You haven’t met the Dean, have you? - No, I haven’t

B) Alternative questions

- Do you speak English or French? - I speak French.

- Are you a student or a lecturer? - I’m a lecturer.

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C) Wh-questions

These are questions which start with a wh-word (what? who? how? when?
why? where? whom? which? etc.).

A: Where can I get a taxi? B: Just after the next building.

B: How often do you study English? B: Once a week.

VIII. POLITE QUESTIONS AND REQUESTS

You can make a question more polite by adding please or by using an
introductory formula like could you tell me...? /Would you like...? / Can you...?/would
you be so kind as to...? and so on.

What’s your name? /What’s your name please? / Could you tell me your name? /
Would you like telling me what your name is?/ I wondered if you could tell me your
name.

IX. POSSIBILITY

This can be expressed thanks to can, may, could and might.

- He can come tomorrow

- If I were you, I could do it easily
- He may come tomorrow (formal)
- It might rain today (It is possible but...)

X. ABILITY

This can be expressed thanks to can, be able to, and could for past ability.

- I can teach English (i.e. I’m able to teach English)

- I could play football when I was young
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- Can you drive a car?

- He can’t speak Italian ( inability only can’t, may not is not used here)

XI. PERMISSION

It can be expressed thanks to can, may, could, might, and shall.

- Can I come in? Yes you can/ No, you can’t

- May I open the window? Yes you may/ No you mayn’t.
- Could I talk to your brother?
- Might I use your phone?
- Shall I ask you something? (Do you allow me to ask..?)

XII. OBLIGATION AND DUTY

These can be expressed thanks to should, must, and ought to.

- Students should attend classes regularly. (duty)

- You should pay taxes to the government. (duty)
- You should/ought to help the poor. (moral obligation)
- You must tell me the truth. (obligation)
- A wife must love her husband. (duty)
- You ought to love your parents. (duty)

XIII. PROMISE
It is expressed thanks to will (first person) and shall (second and third persons).

- I will marry you. ( promise to marry)

- You shall succeed if you study hard. (promise)
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CHAPTER TWO: THE MODAL VERBS

Here is a list of modal verbs:

can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should,

must
The verbs or expressions dare, ought to, had better, and need
not behave like modal auxiliaries to a large extent and may be added to
the above list.

Modal verbs are used to express functions such as:

1. Permission
2. Ability
3. Obligation
4. Prohibition
5. Lack of necessity
6. Advice
7. possibility
8. probability

Here is a list of modals with examples:

Modal Verb Expressing Example

must Strong obligation You must stop when the traffic
lights turn red.
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logical conclusion / He must be very tired. He's

Certainty been working all day long.
prohibition You must not smoke in the
must not
hospital.
ability I can swim.
can permission Can I use your phone, please?
possibility Smoking can cause cancer.
ability in the past When I was younger I could run
fast.
could polite permission Excuse me, could I just say
something?
possibility It could rain tomorrow!
permission May I use your phone, please?
may
possibility, probability It may rain tomorrow!
polite permission Might I suggest an idea?
might possibility, probability I might go on holiday to
Australia next year.
lack of I need not buy tomatoes. There
need not necessity/absence of are plenty of tomatoes in the
obligation fridge.
50 % obligation I should / ought to see a doctor.
I have a terrible headache.
advice You should / ought to revise
should/ought
your lessons
to
logical conclusion He should / ought to be very
tired. He's been working all day
long.
had better advice You'd better revise your lessons
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CHAPTER THREE: THE QUESTION TAGS

Question Tag Rules:

Question tags follow these patterns:

 Positive statement + negative tag.

 Negative statement + positive tag.

In a positive statement, a negative tag is used. However, in a negative

statement, a positive tag is used.

Statement Tag
Example
Type Type
Positive Negative "You're coming, aren't
you?"
Negative Positive "He isn't going, is he?"
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Tag questions vary according to different factors such as the choice

of auxiliary, type of sentence, and negation. The following table outlines
the main rules to form tag questions:

Rule Example
1. Use a negative tag if the statement is positive. She likes ice cream,
doesn't she?
Use a positive tag if the statement is negative. She doesn't like ice
cream, does she?
2. A personal pronoun (e.g., he, she, it, they, we, "The house you
etc.) is used in the tag question. It refers to the bought was built in
subject of the sentence 2003, wasn’t it?"
3. If an auxiliary or modal verb (e.g., is, are, was, "We have got a
were, have, has, can, should, etc.) is present in the beautiful garden,
statement, it is used in the tag question, and the haven’t we?"
main verb is not mentioned We can't finish on
time, can we?
They should keep
quiet, shouldn't
they?
4. If no auxiliary verb is present, "do" or "did" are Jane likes to do a lot
used in the tag question with the same tense as the of sports, doesn’t
statement she?
She joined a sports
club, didn't she?
They don't show up
often, do they?
5. If the sentence is an imperative sentence, "will", "Don’t be late, will
"would", ''can", or "could" are usually used you?"
Show some respect,
would you?
Be kind, can you?
Do your homework,
could you?
6. If the sentence expresses a suggestion or "Let’s go shopping,
request, "shall", "will", or "could" are used in the shall we?"
question tag Please, lend me $5,
will you?
7. When "there is, there are, there were, it is, etc." "There weren’t a lot
are used to show something exists, "there" or "it" of things left at the
are used in the question tag too sale, were there?"
It is hot, isn't it?