Fundamentals of Extension Education

Extension Education word is derived from the Latin root ‘ex’ meaning out and ‘tension’ meaning
stretching. Education is the process of facilitating learning or acquisition of knowledge, skill values
and habits.

Definition of Education

Education is the process of developing capability of the individual so that they can adequately
response to their situation. We can also define education as process of bringing desirable change
into the behaviour of human being.

Webster defined education as the process of teaching to develop the knowledge, skill, or character
of the student.

“Sociologist Rodney Stark declares that, Education is the cheapest, most rapid and most reliable
path to economic advancement under present conditions,”

Types of Education

There are mainly three types of education, namely, Formal, Informal and Non-formal. Each of
these types is briefly described below.

(A) Formal Education

Formal education corresponds to a systematic, organized education model, structured and

administered according to a given set of laws and norms, presenting a rather rigid curriculum as
regards objectives, content and methodology. It is characterized by a contiguous education process
named, as Sarramona1 remarks, “presential education”, which necessarily involves the teacher,
the students and the institution. It corresponds to the education process normally adopted by our
schools and universities.

o Planned with a particular end in view.

o Limited to a specific period.

o Well-defined and systematic curriculum

o Given by specially qualified teachers.

o Includes activities outside the classroom

o Observes strict discipline.

(B) Informal Education

Informal education is quite diverse from formal education and, particularly, from nonformal
education, although in certain cases it is capable of maintaining a close relationship with both. It
does not correspond to an organized and systematic view of education; informal education life
long process in which portions azure’s knowledge, skill, attitude and insight from daily
experiences and exposure to the endearment at home.

o Incidental and spontaneous

o Not-pre-planned.

o Not imparted by any specialized agency.

o No prescribed time-table or curriculum.

o May be negative also

(C) Non-Formal Education

It is organized and systematic education activity carried on outside the frame work of the formal
system to provide selected type of learning to the particular group of population.

o Derived from the expression ‘formal education.

o Outside the realm of formal education.

o Conscious and deliberate.

o to be organized for a homogeneous group.

o Serving the need of the identified group.

Basic Definitions Related to Extension

Extension education is an applied social science consisting of relevant content derived from
physical, biological and social sciences and in its own process synthesized into a body of
knowledge, concepts, principles and procedures oriented to provide non-credit out of school
education largely for adults. - Leagans (1971).

Extension Education is a science, which deals with the creation, transmission & application of
knowledge designed to bring about planned changes in the behavior-complex of people, with a
view to help them live better by learning the ways of improving their vocations, enterprises &
institutions (Reddy, 1993).

Extension Education is a science that brings about desirable changes in the behavior of the
concerned persons through educational methods, so as to improve their general standard of living
with their own efforts. In fact, it deals with the designs & strategies of transfer of technology to
the concerned persons. In other words, what is taught to the farmers is not Extension Education,
though its knowledge is applied for the effective & efficient communication of various
programmes of change (Singh, 1994).

Extension is education and that its purpose is to change attitude and practices of the people with
whom the work is to change. (Ensminger,1957)

Extension Education is the process of teaching rural people how to live better by learning ways to
improve their farm, home and community institutions (Leagans, 1961).

Extensions an out of school education and services for the members of the farm family and others
directly or indirectly engaged in farm production to enable them to adopt improved practices in
production, management, conservation and marketing. Several authors defined extension in
various ways emphasizing the importance of one or the other aspect of extension (National
Commission on Agriculture, 1976).

Scope of Extension Education

Extension appears to have unlimited scope in situations where there is need for creating awareness
amongst the people and changing their behavior by informing and educating them. Kelsey and
Hearne (1967) identified nine areas of programme emphasis, which indicate the scope of
agricultural extension.

1. Efficiency in agricultural production.

2. Efficiency in marketing, distribution and utilization.

3. Conservation, development and use of natural resources.

4. Management on the farm and in the home.

5. Family living.

6. Youth development.

7. Leadership development.

8. Community development and rural area development.

9. Public affairs.

The following statements will further amplify the scope of extension.

1. Extension is fundamentally a system of out-of-school education for adults and youths alike. It
is a system where people are motivated through a proper approach to help themselves by applying
science in their daily lives, in farming, home making and community living.

2. Extension is education for all village people.

3. Extension is bringing about desirable changes in the knowledge, attitudes and skills of people.

4. Extension is helping people to help themselves.

5. Extension is working with men and women, boys and girls, to answer their felt needs and wants.

6. Extension is teaching through "learning by doing" and "seeing is believing".

7. Extension is working in harmony with the culture of the people.

8. Extension is a two-way channel; it brings scientific information to village people and it also
takes the Problems of the village people to the scientific institutes for solution.

9.Extension is working together (in groups) to expand the welfare and happiness of the people
with their own families, their own villages, their own country and the world.

10. Extension is development of individuals in their day-to-day living, development of their

leaders, their society and their world as a whole.

Principal of Extension Education

1. Principle of peoples need and interest

Extension work must be based on the needs & interests of the people. Always programme must be
developed according needs & interests this need differ from individual to individual, from village
to village, from block to block, from state to state; therefore, there cannot be one programme for
all people.

2. Principle of grass root level organization

A group of rural people in local community should sponsor extension work. They work with local
community so that the programme should fit in with the local conditions. The aim of organizing
the local group is to demonstrate the value of the new practices or programmes so that more &
more people would participate.

Differences in the culture are always being there between extension worker and rural people,
success is when extension professionals have to know the level of the knowledge, & the skills of
the people, methods & tools used by them, their customs, traditions, beliefs, values, etc. before
starting the extension programme.
4. Principle of cooperation and people’s participation

Extension is a co-operative venture. It is a joint democratic enterprise in which rural people

cooperate with their village, block & state officials to pursue a common cause. Ultimately without
the cooperation of people the work cannot be successful and desired result cannot be achieved.
The first task of extension education is the cooperation of people and their participation in work.
Extension helps people to help themselves. Good extension work is directed towards assisting rural
families to work out their own problems rather than giving them ready-made solutions. Actual
participation & experience of people in these programmes creates self-confidence in them and
also, they learn more by doing. People should realize that the task of extension education is their
own task. Participation in extension work generates confidence among people for the work. It is
not essential that all the members of the society should participate but Extension professionals
should try for maximum participation of people.

5. Principle of cultural change

Extension education starts with what the learner knows, has and thinks. With this in mind and with
an attitude of respect towards clients, the extension professionals must seek to discover and
understand the limitations, taboo and the cultural values related to each phase of programme so
that an acceptable approach could be selected in the locality.

6. Principle of learning by doing

According to this principle, farmers are encouraged to learn by doing the work themselves and by
participating in it. When a person does a work, he gains practical knowledge and experiences the
difficulties. Extension professionals are able to understand the problems and provide proper
guidance to the farmers and thus, they are able to receive proper information/feedback.

7. Principle of trained specialists

It is very difficult that extension personnel should be knowledgeable about all problems. Therefore,
it is necessary that specialists should impart training to the farmers from time to time.

8. Principle of adaptability in use of extension teaching methods

People differ from each other; one group differs from another group and conditions also differ
from place to place. An extension programme should be flexible, so that necessary changes can be
made whenever needed, to meet the varying conditions. Extension professionals should have
knowledge of extension methods so that they can select proper method according to the condition.

Teaching methods should be flexible so that they can be properly applied on people according to
their age groups, educational background, economic standard and gender. In extension education,
two or more methods should be applied according to the principle of adaptability.

9. Principle of leadership

Extension work is based on the full utilization of local leadership. The selection & training of local
leaders to enable them to help in carrying out extension work is essential to the success of the
programme. People have more faith in local leaders & they should be used to put across a new
idea so that it is accepted with the least resistance.

10. Principle of whole family

Extension work will have a better chance of success if the extension professionals have a whole-
family approach instead of piecemeal approach or separate & uninterested approach. Extension
work is, therefore, for the whole family, i.e. for male, female and children.

11. Principle of evaluation

Extension is based upon the methods of science, and it needs constant evaluation. The effectiveness
of the work is measured in terms of the changes brought about in the knowledge, skill, attitude,
and adoption behavior of the people, not merely in terms of achievement of physical targets.

12. Principle of satisfaction

The end-product of the effort of extension teaching is the satisfaction that comes to the farmer and
his family members as the result of solving a problem, meeting a need, acquiring a new skill or
some other changes in behavior. Satisfaction is the key to success in extension work. A satisfied
stakeholder is the best advertisement.

13. Principal of Indigenous Knowledge

People everywhere have indigenous knowledge system which they have develop through
generation of work experience and problem solving in their own specific situation. The indigenous
knowledge systems encompass all aspect of life and people considered it essential for their
survival.

Objective of Extension

Objectives are end towards which our efforts are to be directed. More specific objectives of
extension education are-

1. To assist people to discover and analyze their problems and identify their felt needs.

2. To develop leadership among people and help them in organizing groups to solve their problems.

3. To disseminate research information of economic practical important in a way people would be

work and understand.

4. To assist people in mobilizing and utilizing the resource which they have and which they need
from outside.

5. To collect and transmit feedback information for solving management problems.

Extension Educational Process

An effective extension educational programme involves five essential and interrelated steps. This
concept of the extension educational process is intended only to clarify the steps necessary in
carrying out a planned educational effort. It does not imply that these steps are definitely separate
from each other. Experience shows that planning, teaching and evaluation take place continuously,
in varying degrees, throughout all phases of extension activities

First step: The first step consists of collection of facts and analysis of the situation. Facts about
the people and their enterprises; the economic, social, cultural, physical and technological
environment in which they live and work. These may be obtained by appropriate survey and
establishing rapport with the people.

The responses obtained are to be analyzed with the local people to identify the problems and
resources available in the community. For example, after a survey in a community and analysis of
the data, the problem was identified as low income of the farm family from their crop production
enterprise.

Teaching

Objectives and Evaluation

Solutions

Situation and Reconsideration Problem

Second step: The next step is deciding on realistic objectives which may be accomplished by the
community. A limited number of objectives should be selected by involving the local people. The
objectives should be specific and clearly stated, and on completion should bring satisfaction to the
community. Objectives should state the behavioral changes in people as well as economic and
social outcomes desired.

In the example, the problem was identified as low income from the crop production enterprise. A
deeper probe into the date revealed that low income was due to low yield of crops, which was
attributed to the use of local seeds with low yield potential, application of little fertilizer and lack
of protection measures. By taking into consideration the capacity and competency of the people in
the community and the availability of resources, the objective was 1 3 4 5 2 set up to increase the
crop yield by 20 per cent within a certain period of time. It was estimated that the increased yield
shall bring increased income, which shall enhance the family welfare.

Third step: The third step is teaching, which involves choosing what should be taught (the content)
and how the people should be taught the methods and aids to be used. It requires selecting research
findings of economic and practical importance relevant to the community, and selection and
combination of appropriate teaching methods and aids.

Based on the problems identified in the particular example, technologies like use of HYV seeds,
application of fertilizer and plant protection chemicals were selected as teaching content. Result
demonstration, method demonstration, farmers' training and farm publications were chosen as
teaching methods, and tape recorder and slides were selected as teaching aids.

Fourth step: The fourth step is evaluating the teaching i.e., determining the extent to which the
objectives have been reached. To evaluate the results of an educational programme objectively, it
is desirable to conduct a re-survey. The evidence of changed behavior should be collected, which
shall not only provide a measure of success, but shall also indicate the deficiencies, if any.

In the example, the re-survey after the fixed period of time, indicated that the crop yield had
increased by 10 percent. It, therefore, indicated that there was a gap of 10 per cent in crop yield in
comparison to the target (objective) of 20 per cent fixed earlier. The re-survey also indicated that
there had been two important deficiencies in carrying out the extension educational program, such
as, there was lack of proper water management and the farmers could not apply the fertilizer and
plant protection chemicals as per recommendation due to lack of funds.

Fifth step: The fifth step is re-consideration of the entire extension educational programme on the
light of the results of evaluation. The problems identified in the process of evaluation may become
the starting point for the next phase of the extension educational programme, unless new problems
have developed or new situations have arisen.

After re-consideration of the results of evaluation with the people, the following teaching
objectives were again set up. For example, they were, training the farmers on proper water
management practices and putting up demonstrations on water management. The people were also
advised to contact the banks for obtaining production credit in time to purchase critical inputs.
Thus, the continuous process of extension education shall go on, resulting in progress of the people
from a less desirable to a more desirable situation.

Stages of extension education in India

Pre independence

• Ideal village project- sir Daniel Hamilton, in 1903 began a project in Sundaram village near
Chennai. Under this programme in 1903, cooperative deposit institute was setup.

• Along with the savings, the programme of health, literacy and small industry was setup. In this
planning, the was emphasis was on specialized training for unemployed young farmers to make
them self-dependent.

Sriniketan Project
• 1920

• Rabindra Nath Tagore

• Place-Sriniketan (Calcutta) West Bengal

• 1920

• To help the rural people in establishing cottage industry.

• To inspire the people to follow new technology.

• Development of dairy farming.

• To create the feeling of co- operation

Gurgaon Project

• 1920

• F.L Bryne

• To increase crop production

• To control extra expenditure

• To improve the health.

• To develop the feeling of women education,

Marthandam Project

• 1921

• Dr. Spencer Hatch

• To develop the feeling of self-reliance amongst the rural people.

• To improve the spirit of cooperation and self-respect.

• To bring the desirable change in the attitude of rural people.

Sevagram project
• Gandhiji began a welfare project known as sevagram established his ashram in vardha in 1920.
the main objective of this programme was to prevent the economic and social suppression of the
people and to create the feeling of patriotism among them.

• For fulfilling this objective, Gandhiji made a programme known as gandhian constructive
programme. The main objective of this project were to introduce health programme , the
programme of women welfare , the programme of sanitation in the village , primary and adult
education program , program of social harmony and to popularize the mother tongue and other
national dialects.

Baroda village reconstruction project

• This project was started by B T Krishnamachari in baroda in 1932. the objectives of the project
were to spred education and industrialization to develop necessary factors for the progress of
agriculture , to extend adult education and to use the school teachers of village in the extension of
programme.

Firka Development project

• 1946

• Madras Government

• Madras (Tamil Nadu)

• All-round development of rural people.

• To develop the means of drinking water and communication.

• To develop the committees of panchayat and co-operatives

Indian village service

• It began in the village agosoli Aligarh (up) in 1945, under the guidance of Dr W H Wisher. The
main objective was to educate the rural people in a such a manner so that people could self-
diagnose their problems, to inspire people to help them in development works.

• To provide a good chance to the citizens and other individuals to cooperate in the rural
development work. To guide them for making other planning of development successful. These
were health programme, home science programme, the programme of education and the
development of cottage industry.

Post-Independence Programme

• Etawah Pilot Project-

• September,1948

• Albert Mayor

• Mahewa District- Etawah (U.P)

• To see what degree of production and social improvement can be obtain.

• To find out the feeling of cooperation and initiative amongst the rural people of an average area.

NilokheriExperiment

• July, 1948

• S.K.Dey

• Kurukshetra (Haryana)

• Self-dependence in all the fields of life.

• To arrange for professional training and provide occupation for the people on the basis of their
experience.

• To eliminate the middle-man System.

Small Farmers Development Agency (SFDA)

• The SFDA (1970-71) and Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Laborers Scheme (1971-72) were

started by the Government of India. The SFDA programme was intended to help the small farmers
in their farm production.

Integrated Tribal Development Agency (ITDA)

• It was specially designed to develop tribal areas and tribal people. This was initiated in 1971-72.
Its objectives were to sensitize administration to the basic problems of the tribes and to enforce the
existing laws concerning debt relief, poverty alleviation and protection of tribal lands.

Training and Visit System (1974)

• It was a 'reorganized agricultural extension system' popularly known as "Training and Visit
System' was developed by the World Bank expert Daniel Benor. He was instrumental in
introducing this innovation (new concept) in agricultural extension.

• The main objective of this system was to remove short comings in the existing agricultural
extension system. This system has given the country a new vision bringing farm scientists and
field extension functionaries closer with sole intentions of improving production and income of
farmers.

National Agriculture Extension Project (NAEP)

• It was initiated in 1983. The main objective was to bridge the gap between the research system
with that of extension system, so that the transfer of technology takes place at a much faster rate,
resulting in higher production and prosperity in the rural sector in general and agricultural sector
in particular.

Institute-Village Linkage Programme

• It was initiated in 1995-96 by the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi in four
villages. It provides opportunities to scientists to test or demonstrate new technologies on farmer's
fields and direct feedback from farmers. Application of new technologies tested under different
production systems such as small farms, green revolution farms and commercial farms.

Agricultural Human Resource Development Programme

• It was World Bank Aided Project, launched in 1995. It was meant for financially assisting the
Indian agricultural education sector. It aimed at improving the quality and relevance of higher
agricultural education through in-service training programmes and effective management of
agricultural human resources.
National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP)

• It was started in 1998 by the Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. NATP was intended
to shift the balance of technology generation, assessment and dissemination programmes towards
greater location specify needed for the future. The basic premise of NATP was that research and
extension programmes should be farmer centered and demand driven.

National Agricultural Innovation Project (2006)

• It was introduced to assist farmers in the changing contexts. Its overall objective was to alleviate
the accelerated and sustainable transformation of Indian agriculture in support of poverty easing
and income generation.

National Mission on Agriculture Extension and Technology NMAET)

• It was introduced by the Government of India in 2014- 15, in order to take a holistic view of
extension by making the system farmer driver and increase accountability by restructuring and
strengthening agriculture extension programmes. It was to enable the delivery of technology and
to improve agronomic practices of farmers.

PROGRAMME MANAGEMENT

• Programme management is the process of managing several related projects, often with the
intention of improving an organization's performance.

Different aspects of programme management are:

• Governance- Defining the programme roles and responsibilities as well as the processes and
metrics to assess its progress.

• Management- Planning the projects and the overall programme, ensuring that regular reviews
are undertaken and that stakeholders are engaged.

• Financial Management- Cost of managing the programme needs to be tracked and controls need
to be put in place.

• Infrastructure- Developing a programme plan based on the specific projects, resources,

timescales and controls for the overall programme.
Needs Assessment of Programme Management

• Needs assessment is a phrase that relates to the assessment of the resources necessary to complete
a task or project. It is used in project management to establish what time, financial commitment
and staff will be required to bring a project to fruition.

• Needs assessment and project management go hand in hand, with project managers carrying out
this process to make the objectives of a project into a reality. Carrying out accurate assessment of
the resources needed for a given project will help to prevent problems from arising later, as well
as providing a basis to estimate the budget needed for the project. The needs assessment process
should ensure that once the project commences, those involved have access to everything they
need to reach the project goals and objectives.

• Needs assessment can be done by doing needs assessment survey i.e. asking most important a
group of people what they see as the needs of that group or community. result of the survey then
guides future action. The survey can be informal or formal.

• Have a pre-set list of questions to be answered.

• Have a pre-determined sample of the number and types of people to answer these questions.

• Analyze the results of a survey

Situation Analysis in Programme Management

• The next step of our programme management is situation analysis. Now, the programme
managers analyze all the possible situations which may come in way of successful project
completion. In social science, situation analysis is also called SWOT analysis i.e. Strength,
Weakness, Opportunities and Threats analysis. This analysis allows the manager to identify areas
that need improvement.

Steps-

• clearly identify objective of the project.

• identify all the task required to fulfill the objective.

• Next identify the potential risk that may come in way of objective.

• Situation analysis is often referred to as the '3Cs analysis' i.e analysis of Company, Competitors
and Customers.

• Situation analysis is a one method which not only helps in programme management but also
helps in preventing the organization from upcoming threats while doing situation analysis of all
the programme.

Planning in Programme Management

• Planning is a vital part of the programme management process. A plan is basically a route-map
from programme start to finish. Planning describes what needs to be done, how work will be done,
when the work will be done, how much did it cost. Planning is as first and foremost managerial
function which provides the base for other functions of the management i.e. organizing, staffing,
etc.

• It focuses on the goals of the organization, identifying alternate course of action and deciding the
appropriate action plan. Planning is required at all the levels of the organization. Although, the
scope of planning varies at different levels and departments.

Steps in the Process of Organization

• The organizational work commences with the division of work into manageable activities. The
idea behind is to share the burden of work. • The next step involves the distribution of work among
the employees.

• The responsibility of looking after the functioning of each department is given to an individual.

Implementation in Programme Management

• Effectively implemented programmes stand a better chance of achieving intended outcomes and
producing positive results for children. Programme implementation helps in successfully
executing the plan which we had made during initial stages.
Monitoring in Programme Management

• Monitoring of a programme or intervention involves the collection of routine data that measures
progress toward achieving programme objectives. It is used to track changes in programme outputs
and performance overtime. It provides regular feedback and early indications of progress.

Evaluation in Programme Management

• Programme evaluation is a systematic method for collecting. analyzing, using information to

answer questions about projects, policies and programmes, particularly about their effectiveness
and efficiency. In both the public and private sectors, stakeholders often want to know whether the
programmes, they are funding, implementing, voting for, receiving or objecting to are producing
the intended effect.

Measures of Evaluation

• Define your Stakeholders- Your stakeholders are supporters, implementers, recipients, decision
makers related to your programme. Getting them involved early on will helps to clarify goals and
objectives of the programme you will evaluate.

• Describe the Programme- Taking the time to articulate what your programme does and what
you want to accomplish is essential to establish evaluation plan.

• Focus the Design of Evaluation- Focus on processes, means, activities, outputs etc. Focus on
outcomes or how will you achieve your goal. You may also choose to evaluate both process and
outcomes.

• Gather Evidence- Qualitative and Quantitative data are the two main forms of data you may
collect. Qualitative data offers descriptive information that capture experience, behavior, opinion,
value, feeling, knowledge, sensory response or observable phenomena.

• Draw Conclusions- Data comparisons show trends, gaps, strength, weakness. Compare
evaluation data with targets set for the programme against standards established by your
stakeholders or funders, or make comparison with other programmes.
• Present Findings and Ensure Use- It is important that all the work you put into programme
evaluations gets used for quality improvement. The improvements are done to ensure its use.

EXTENSION TEACHING METHODS

• Extension teaching methods are the tools & techniques used to create situations in which
communication can take place between the rural people & the extension professionals. These are
the methods of imparting new knowledge & skills to the rural people by drawing their attention
towards such technologies, thereby arousing their interest and helping them to have a successful
experience of the new practice. A proper understanding of these methods and their selection for a
particular type of work is necessary.

Classification of Extension Teaching Methods

• According to use-

Individual-contact methods

• Extension methods under this category provide opportunities for face-to-face or person-to-person
contact between the rural people and the extension professionals. These methods are very effective
in teaching new skills and creating goodwill between farmers and the extension professionals.

Group-contact methods

• Under this category, the rural people or farmers are contacted in a group which usually consists
of 20 to 25 persons. These groups are usually formed around a common interest. These methods
also involve a face-to-face contact with the people and provide an opportunity for the exchange of
ideas, for discussions on problems and technical recommendations. In this way, the future course
of action is finalized.

Mass or community-contact methods

• An extension professional has to approach a large number of people for disseminating

information and helping them to use it. This can be done through mass-contact methods
conveniently. These methods are more useful for making people aware of the new technologies,
quickly.

According to form Method demonstration

• It is used to show the technique of doing things or carrying out new practices e.g. clean milk
production, paneer making, ghee making, etc. This method is usually used for groups of people.

Result demonstration

• Result demonstration is meant for proving the advantages of recommended practices and to
demonstrate their applicability to the local conditions. It is conducted by a farmer under the direct
supervision of an extension professional. It is designed to teach others, in addition to the person
who conducts the demonstration. It helps the farmers to learn by seeing & doing. This method can
be used to show the superiority of practices, such as culture, value addition, hygienic handling of
animals, etc.

Krishi Vigyan Kendra

• The first Krishi Vigyan Kendra, on a pilot basis, was established in 1974 at Puducherry
(Pondicherry) under the administrative control of the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore.

• These Krishi Vigyan Kendra are 100% financed by the Government of India and are crucial to
fulfilling the target of doubling farmer’s income in near future.

Krishi Vigyan Kendra Features-

• Creation of valuable resources in terms of technical manpower and assets

• Confirmation of technologies to suit local specificity

• Showcasing the frontier technologies

• Capacity-building among stakeholders

• Front runner in technological application, information and inputs

• Participatory approaches in planning, implementing, executing and evaluation

• Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) is an agricultural extension center in India that serves as a link
between the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) and the farmers at the grassroots
level. The primary objective of KVKs is to impart vocational training and conduct research in
agriculture and allied fields to enhance the productivity and income of farmers.

• Training and Capacity Building: KVKs organize training programs for farmers, farmwomen,
rural youth, and other stakeholders to impart knowledge and skills related to modern agricultural
practices, technology adoption, and sustainable farming methods.

• On-Farm Testing: KVKs conduct on-farm testing of technologies and methodologies to assess
their suitability and effectiveness in local conditions. This helps in validating innovations and
recommending them to farmers.

• Frontline Demonstrations: KVKs organize frontline demonstrations to showcase improved

agricultural practices, crop varieties, and technologies directly to farmers on their fields. This helps
in promoting the adoption of best practices.

• Seed Production and Distribution: KVKs are involved in the production and distribution of
quality seeds of improved crop varieties to farmers. This contributes to enhancing crop
productivity and quality.

• Advisory Services: KVKs provide advisory services to farmers by offering expert guidance on
various aspects of agriculture, including crop selection, crop management, pest and disease
control, and post-harvest management.

• Agro-Processing and Value Addition: Some KVKs focus on promoting agro processing and value
addition activities to help farmers add value to their produce and increase income through
processing, packaging, and marketing.

• Demonstration Units: KVKs establish demonstration units to showcase modern agricultural

technologies, integrated farming systems, and other innovations. These units serve as learning
centers for farmers.

• Research and Development: While KVKs are primarily extension units, they also conduct applied
research to address local agricultural challenges and develop context-specific solutions.

Panchayati Raj

Panchayati Raj - 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act

• Panchayati Raj refers to the system of local self-government in rural areas of India. The term
“Panchayati Raj" is derived from the Sanskrit words “panch," meaning five, and "raj," meaning
rule, which translates to the rule of five.

• It signifies the system of governance where decision-making power is decentralized and vested
in elected representatives at the local level.

Key features of the Panchayati Raj system include:

• Three-Tier Structure: Panchayati Raj is organized into a three-tier structure at the village,
intermediate (block), and district levels. Each tier has its own Panchayat, consisting of elected
representatives.

• Gram Panchayat: At the village level, the Gram Panchayat is the basic unit of Panchayati Raj.
It is responsible for local governance in the rural areas.

• Panchayat Samiti (Intermediate level): This level represents a group of Gram Panchayats at
the block or intermediate level. It coordinates and supervises the functioning of Gram Panchayats
within its jurisdiction.

• Zila Parishad (District level): Zila Parishad is the apex body at the district level. It oversees the
functioning of Panchayat Samitis and ensures coordination among them.

• Elected Representatives: Members of Panchayats are elected through regular elections. The
elected representatives include the Panch (ward member) at the village level, Panchayat Samiti
members at the block level, and Zila Parishad members at the district level.

• Reservation of Seats: To promote social justice and inclusivity, seats in Panchayats are reserved
for Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and women. This reservation aims to ensure
the participation of marginalized sections in local governance.

• Functions and Powers: Panchayats have the responsibility of local governance, including
planning and implementing developmental programs, managing local resources, and addressing
the needs of the community. They also have financial and administrative powers.
• Decentralized Planning: Panchayati Raj institutions are involved in the planning and execution
of various development schemes at the local level. This allows for the customization of
development plans based on the specific needs of the community.

• Role in Rural Development: Panchayati Raj institutions play a crucial role in rural development
by addressing issues related to agriculture, health, education, sanitation, and infrastructure.

• This amendment laid the foundation for democratic decentralization and empowered local self-
government institutions in rural areas. Panchayati Raj is considered an important step towards
grassroots democracy and community-led development in India.

Participatory Learning and Action (PLA)

• PLA is qualitative research, which is used to describe the state of a community, its active
participation and knowing its activism in community development. It is widely used in works
involving local communities. Its main objective is to assess community participation.

• Originally, the PLA was formerly called Participatory Village. It became popular during 1980s.
It is used in both village and city area. It is used to design, monitor, assess and evaluate project
cycle.

• PLA can also be seen in empowering the person with knowledge, life situation and help in
planning and making others effective i.e. its philosophy reflects community status, decision-
making, etc., by which a person resolves his problems and achieves the result.

• PLA is a community-based approach to research and consultation that gives priority to the views
of local people, on the basis they are the experts, and are best placed to come up with a programme
of collective action. Through PLA local people can explore and share their knowledge of life and
local conditions as well make decisions, and plan and carry out actions to effect change within
their communities.

It can be differentiated from more conventional research methods on the basis it;

• Is always a process, never an event.

• It Involves using a range of tools rather than just one, thus allowing methods to be adapted to suit
the issue or audience.

• Places an emphasis on using highly visual consultation tools (such as maps, spider diagrams and
charts, thus allowing everyone to easily participate).

• Is an interactive, rather than extractive process.

• Aims to put local people at the heart of the community planning process.

PLA will adhere to the following principles;

• It is highly participative and interactive-

• It relies on conversations, and dialogue, rather than people just ticking boxes.

• It allows Participants to get involved in a wide variety of ways.

• It is inclusive.

• PLA will always involve a wide range of people taking part.

• Pro-active efforts will be made to target groups that are ‘hard to reach’ or ‘rarely heard’, i.e.
targeting those parts of the community that rarely participate in more conventional consultations.

• PLA extensively uses visual methods, that don’t exclude those who struggle to read or write.

• It will be a process (not just a ‘one off’ event).

• PLA needs to be part of a programme of consultation and engagement, with different activities
at activities being focused on different parts of the community.

• It involves at least 4 distinct phases-research, feedback, review and verification.

• It is community led.

• Agencies and service providers are key partners, but it is the residents/stroke community that
should drive the process.

• When the agencies have gone, the community is left to carry on the work.
10 PLA Ground Rules

• Give everyone the opportunity to participate.

• Respect what people say.

• Don’t dominate.

• Be on the same level as the participants.

• Don’t make assumptions.

• Don’t rush

• ‘Hand over the pen’

• Learn from mistakes

• Be flexible

• Make it Fun

Process-

Strengths and Weaknesses

• Strengths-

• It is inclusive

• It empowers the community as Part of the process

• It can reach out to all sectors of the community, including the ‘hard to reach’.

• It is flexible and adaptable-e.g. different tools, can be chosen to suit specific circumstances.

• It builds up capacity within the community, and leaves a legacy.

• It can produce qualitative or quantitative information, and hard or soft data.

Weaknesses
• It relies on volunteers to give up a substantial amount of time.

• Its time consuming.

• It can lead to cynicism if the results are not acted upon.

PLA tools and techniques

Transect diagrams or maps-

• These are diagrams of the main land use zones in a community. They compare the main features,
resources, uses and problems of different zones. Transects can be constructed by walking in a line
through an area with a key informant, using direct observation to note specific features and factors,
and talking to people met on the way.

Social maps

• These are maps of a village or area which show where groups of people live (for example, rich,
poor, different ethnic or religious groups etc.). Again, maps drawn by different groups may show
different features that highlight issues which are important to them.

Mobility maps

• This record, compare and analyze the movements of different groups in a community or area,
and are a useful indicator of these groups’ contacts with other groups and communities. Historical
maps can be drawn at different points in time, showing how movements of groups, or access of
groups to different areas, have changed.

Daily routine diagrams

• These help to compare the daily or monthly routines of different groups of people, and their
different roles and responsibilities. They usually show the type and distribution of workload, and
can enable comparisons to be made between men and women, young and old, domestic and
agricultural roles etc. They can be useful in assessing the impact of a programme over time (for
example, in changing women’s workload, or children’s school attendance). They can also help to
identify suitable times for community meetings, project visits, M&E events, training courses, etc.

Livelihood analysis diagrams

• These can help to interpret the behavior, decisions, and coping strategies of households with
different socio-economic characteristics and / or living in different types of agro-ecological or
pastoral systems.

Flow diagrams

• Flow diagrams are a visual tool for tracking the flow of resources, benefits or negative effects in
order to explore the potential or actual impacts of a project, or a wider change. People, institutions,
resources and so on are represented diagrammatically, and arrows are drawn to indicate the flow
or the linkages between them.

Venn (or chapati) diagrams

• These can be used to show the key institutions and individuals in a community, and their
relationships and importance for decision-making and/or their influence on different people or
groups. Different sizes of circles are drawn, indicating different institutions and individuals and
their relative influence. The circles can be placed closer or further away to each other depending
on the level of contact, or closeness of the relationships between the different institutions or
individuals.

Preference ranking

• People vote to select priorities. For example, a few issues or options are listed, and people allocate
a score out of 10 for each one.

Pairwise ranking

• In pairwise ranking a matrix is used to compare different options against each other to identify
which is the preferred option, and the reasons why. Scores are then aggregated to find out the
overall favorites.

Direct matrix ranking

• Direct matrix ranking is used to generate different criteria for decision making and to score
different options against these criteria. It can be used as a means of understanding the reasons for
local preferences for such things as different seed or crop varieties, tree species or types of food.

Wealth ranking
• This can be used to investigate perceptions of wealth differences and inequalities in a community,
in order to discover local indicators and criteria of wealth and well-being, and to establish the
relative wealth of households in the community. Wealth ranking can be useful if a project is trying
to target the poorest people. It is done by making a list of all households and asking different people
to sort them into categories according to their own criteria of wealth or well-being. Like all
participatory tools, this must be done sensitively and appropriately to avoid stigmatizing particular
groups.

Timelines

A timeline is an illustration of key events in the life of an individual, household, community or

organization over a specified period. Often this will involve drawing a linear timeline, and asking
people to mark the timeline with key events. Timelines can be used to plot the progress of a project
or programme over time, highlighting achievements and challenges faced along the way.

Time trends

Time trends are graphs that show how things have changed over time. They can be used for many
variables such as crop yields, areas under cultivation, livestock population, prices, and rainfall.

Seasonal calendars

These are useful ways of representing seasonal variations in climate, crops, income-generating
activities, nutrition, health and diseases, debt, etc. They can help identify times of shortage – of
food, money or time – and the best time of the year for particular kinds of development work.

Daily schedule

A daily schedule is a diagram to show an individual’s pattern of labor over the course of a day.
This usually shows the type and distribution of workload and enables comparisons to be made
between men and women, young and old, domestic and agricultural roles etc.

Role play
• Groups role play a situation or a change in the community. Different groups (e.g. men, women,
young or old people) may role play the same situation from very different points of view. People
can then compare how different groups see the same problems or challenges.

Theatre

• Particularly effective when working with children, theatre might involve discussing issues with
children, selecting a key issue on which to make a play, developing a drama, and performing that
to a wider audience. Issues arising can then be discussed more widely.

Human resource and community development

Skill development and capacity building

• Skill development refers to the process of acquiring or improving the specific abilities needed to
perform tasks, duties, or functions effectively.

• Capacity building involves strengthening the overall abilities, resources, and infrastructure of
individuals, organizations, or communities to achieve their objectives efficiently.

role of skill development and capacity development in human resource development

• Individual Growth.

• Organizational Effectiveness.

• Leadership Development.

• Adaptability to Change.

• Innovation and Problem-Solving.

• Efficient Workforce.

• Risk Management.

Community development

• Community development is a process aimed at improving the well-being and quality of life of a
community. It involves collective efforts to address social, economic, cultural, and environmental
challenges within a specific geographic area.
• Community development is a holistic approach that focuses on empowering and mobilizing
community members to take initiatives for positive change.

• It involves collaborative efforts to enhance social capital, economic opportunities, and the overall
sustainability of a community.

Key Elements of Community Development:

• Community Participation.

• Empowerment.

• Sustainability.

• Social Inclusion and Justice.

• Collaboration and Partnerships.

• Cultural Sensitivity.

Approaches of community development

asset based approach of community development

• The asset-based approach to community development is a philosophy and methodology that

focuses on identifying and leveraging the existing strengths, resources, and capacities within a
community. Unlike needs-based approaches that concentrate on addressing deficits or problems,
the asset-based approach starts by recognizing and building upon the positive assets that
communities already possess.

• This approach aims to empower community members, foster self-reliance, and promote
sustainable development.

external agent approach of community development

• The external agent approach to community development involves the active participation of
external entities, such as government agencies, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), or
development agencies, in initiating and implementing development projects within a community.
• In this approach, external agents bring in resources, expertise, and support to address specific
needs and challenges within the community. While external intervention can provide valuable
assistance, it is crucial for such efforts to be collaborative, culturally sensitive, and respectful of
the community's autonomy.

inner resource approach of community development

• The inner resource approach to community development focuses on recognizing, mobilizing, and
harnessing the inherent strengths, skills, and capacities that exist within a community.

• Instead of primarily relying on external interventions or resources, this approach emphasizes the
internal assets and potential of the community members themselves. The goal is to empower
individuals and communities to identify and utilize their inner resources for sustainable
development.

Community organization

• Community organization can be defined as the deliberate and systematic effort to bring people
together within a specific geographic area or community to collectively address issues, solve
problems, and achieve common objectives.

• It involves the identification of community needs, the mobilization of resources, and the
development of strategies to enhance the quality of life and promote social change. Community
organization emphasizes the principles of participation, inclusivity, and empowerment, aiming to
build the capacity of community members to take charge of their own development.

Community Organization Process:

Identification of Issues:

• Recognizing and prioritizing the concerns, challenges, or opportunities within the community.

Formation of Groups:

• Bringing together individuals with shared interests or concerns to form working groups or
committees.

Needs Assessment:
• Conducting a thorough assessment to understand the specific needs and assets of the community.

Planning and Strategy Development:

• Collaboratively developing plans and strategies to address identified issues and achieve
community goals.

Resource Mobilization:

• Securing and mobilizing the necessary resources, which can include financial support,
volunteers, or expertise.

Implementation:

• Putting plans into action, often through community-led projects, programs, or initiatives.

Evaluation and Reflection:

• Regularly assessing the impact of community organization efforts and reflecting on lessons
learned for continuous improvement.

Advocacy and Networking:

• Engaging in advocacy efforts to influence policies or decisions that affect the community.
Building networks with external stakeholders.

Leadership development

• Leadership development can be defined as a structured and ongoing process that aims to identify,
nurture, and empower individuals with the qualities and competencies required for effective
leadership.

• It involves a combination of formal education, experiential learning, mentorship, and self-

directed activities to enhance leadership skills. The focus is on cultivating not only technical and
managerial abilities but also interpersonal skills, emotional intelligence, and a deep understanding
of ethical leadership principles.

Key Features of Leadership Development:

• Identification of Leadership Potential.

• Holistic Skill Development.

• Experiential Learning.

• Self-Reflection and Assessment.

• Adaptability and Change Management.

• Team Building and Collaboration.

Importance of Leadership Development:

• Organizational Success.

• Employee Engagement.

• Succession Planning.

• Crisis Management.

• Talent Retention.

• Positive Organizational Culture.

characteristics of an influential leader

• Visionary.

• confidence, and an engaging personality.

• Recognizes, understands, and manages their own emotions and the emotions of others.

• Demonstrates flexibility and openness to change.

• Understands and shares the feelings of others.

• Resilient.

• Displays self-assurance and belief in one's abilities.

• Possesses the ability to think critically and plan strategically.

• Conveys ideas clearly, listens actively, and tailors’ communication to different audiences.
• Motivates and energizes others to achieve their best.

• Makes well-informed decisions in a timely manner.

• Encourages creativity and embraces new ideas.

• Prioritizes the well-being and development of team members.

People participation in community development

• People participation in community development involves the active involvement of community

members in decision-making, planning, and implementation of projects and initiatives. Different
individuals may participate in community development in various capacities based on their
interests, skills, and availability.

Stakeholders’ roles in community development

• Stakeholders play crucial roles in community development by contributing their resources,

expertise, and influence to support initiatives that aim to improve the well-being of a community.

• Stakeholders are individuals, groups, or organizations that have a vested interest in the
community and can be positively or negatively affected by its development. Their involvement is
essential for the success, sustainability, and inclusivity of community development efforts.

Role of extension worker

• The whole extension process is dependent upon the extension worker, who is the critical element
in all extension activities.

• The effectiveness of the extension worker can often determine the success or failure of an
extension program.

An extension worker must have knowledge in four area

• Technical- the agent must be adequately trained in the technical aspect of his work.

• Rural life- this includes anthropological and sociological studies of the rural area of the project.

• Policy- includes the policies and legislation of the government or other institution policies which
affects the rural area.
• Adult education- the agent must be familiar with the approaches to adult education, group
dynamics and developing participation among the locals.

Personal qualities-

• Commitment- the agent must have a sense of dedication and determination to achieve the goals
of the extension project.

• Reliability- the agent must carry genuinely the tasks with lesser no supervision from the
superiors.

• Humility- the agent must be sensitive to the wishes and feeling of the farmers.

• Confidence- the agent must believe in his abilities and knowledge to achieve something.

Function-

• Gathering of data or information above the community and its constituents.

• Identifying priority areas problems, needs and interests of people in the community.

• Establishing rapport with the village people.

• Selecting and formulating appropriate change objectives.

• Translating technical information with farmers language.

• Choosing using suitable approaches and extension teaching method.

• Conducting extension education activities.

• Contribution to the professional development of the discipline.

• Extension worker create awareness of innovation.

Role -

• A teacher

• A mobilizer of resources

• A developer of potential leader

• A catalyst of developmental change.

• A linker

• A guide

Areas of extension education

• Agriculture extension- it means extending knowledge to workers.

• Veterinary and animal husbandry extension- it means extending knowledge about managing,
feeding, care of animal and birds, breeding.

• Agriculture engineering extension- extending knowledge about agriculture machinery, such as

tractors and pumps, the levelling of land, water use, soil conservation.

• Home science extension- extending technical knowledge to wives or ladies in urban and rural
areas on food, child care, home decoration, kitchen, gardening.

• Industry extension –extending knowledge on the managing and running of industries.

Origin of extension education in various countries

• The origin of the term extension education was first introduced in 1873 by Cambridge university
in England to describe a particular system dedicated to the disseminating of knowledge to rural
people where they lived and worked.

• In 1873, Cambridge formally adopted this system and was followed by Landon university in
1876 and oxford university in 1878. By 1880, the work was being referred to as the extension
movement.

Origin of extension education in India

• The extension education in India aimed at the integrated development of rural, remote and
underdeveloped areas of the country is of relatively recent origin (1952- 53).

• K. N. Singh is known as the father of extension education in India.

Human resource and community development

• Human Resource Development (HRD) is a comprehensive framework that focuses on helping
individuals and organizations acquire, develop, and utilize knowledge, skills, and abilities to
achieve organizational goals and personal satisfaction. It encompasses various processes and
activities aimed at enhancing the capabilities and performance of individuals and teams within an
organization.

Importance of human resource development

Skill Enhancement and Competence Building:

• HRD focuses on providing training and development opportunities to employees, helping them
acquire new skills and enhance existing ones.

• Improved skills and competencies contribute to increased individual and organizational

performance.

Adaptability and Flexibility:

• In a rapidly changing business environment, HRD helps individuals and organizations adapt to
new technologies, processes, and market conditions.

• Continuous learning and development foster a culture of flexibility and agility.

Employee Motivation and Engagement:

• Engaged and motivated employees are more likely to be productive, innovative, and committed
to the organization's goals.

Increased Productivity:

• Well-trained and skilled employees are more efficient in their roles, leading to increased
productivity.

• HRD initiatives, such as effective training programs, contribute to improved work processes and

performance.

Succession Planning and Talent Management:

• Succession planning ensures a smooth transition in leadership, reducing the risk of talent gaps
and disruptions.

Enhanced Organizational Performance:

• A workforce with the right skills and capabilities positively impacts the overall performance of
the organization.

Innovation and Creativity:

• Continuous learning and development foster a culture of innovation.

• Employees who are encouraged to think creatively and stay updated on industry trends contribute
to organizational innovation.

Improved Employee Retention:

• Organizations that invest in the development of their employees create a positive work
environment.

• Employees are more likely to stay with an organization that values their growth and provides
opportunities for advancement.

Strategic Alignment:

• HRD aligns individual and team goals with the overall strategic objectives of the organization.

• Ensures that employees' efforts are directed toward achieving organizational goals.

Employee Well-Being:

• HRD initiatives, such as wellness programs and work-life balance initiatives, contribute to the
overall well-being of employees.

Training

• Training refers to the organized process of acquiring knowledge, skills, and competencies
required to perform a specific job or task effectively. It is a systematic effort to develop an
individual's capabilities, enhance their performance, and contribute to their personal and
professional growth.

• Another definition from Edwin B. Flippo states that training is "the act of increasing the
knowledge and skills of an employee for doing a particular job. “

Objectives of Training:

• Skill Development.

• Knowledge Enhancement.

• Behavioral Change.

• Performance Improvement.

• Adaptation to Change.

Method of training

types of on-the-job training method

• This approach allows individuals to acquire new skills and knowledge in the actual work
environment.

Job Rotation:

• Description: Employees are moved through different roles and responsibilities within the
organization.

• Advantages: Provides a broad understanding of the organization, enhances adaptability, and

prepares individuals for diverse tasks.

Coaching:

• Description: One-on-one guidance provided by a more experienced employee (coach) to a less

experienced employee (coaches).

• Advantages: Customized support, immediate feedback, and targeted skill development.

Internships and Apprenticeships:

• Description: New hires or trainees work under the guidance of experienced employees to gain
practical experience.

• Advantages: Combines theoretical knowledge with hands-on experience, provides a structured

learning environment.

Off the job method of training

Off-the-job training refers to training activities conducted outside the employee's regular work
environment. These methods are typically employed to provide individuals with new skills,
knowledge, and perspectives that may not be easily acquired within the workplace.

Conferences and Seminars:

• Description: Employees attend industry conferences, seminars, or workshops to gain insights

into industry trends, best practices, and innovations.

• Advantages: Exposure to a broader industry perspective, networking opportunities, and

exposure to thought leaders.

Case Studies:

• Description: Participants analyze real or hypothetical business situations to apply theoretical

knowledge to practical problems.

• Advantages: Encourages critical thinking, allows participants to apply knowledge to real-world

scenarios.

vestibule method of training

The vestibule training method, also known as the vestibule or simulated training, involves the
creation of a simulated work environment, commonly referred to as a "vestibule." In this setting,
employees can learn and practice specific job tasks without directly affecting the actual work
processes of the organization. This method aims to provide a controlled and safe space for
employees to acquire new skills before applying them in their regular work roles.

Non-Formal Education

• It was first challenged by Scribner and Cole in 1973, who claimed most things in life are better
learnt through informal processes, citing language learning as an example.

• Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) declared lifelong learning
strategies in 1996. This includes 23 countries from 5 continents, who have sought to clarify and
validate all forms of learning including formal, non-formal and informal.

• It provides functional literacy and continuing education for adults and youths who have not had
a formal education or did not complete their primary education.

• Non-formal learning results from daily life activities related to work, family or leisure. It is not
structured and does not lead to certification.

• Today non-formal education is seen as a concept of recurrent and lifelong learning. It is popular
among the adults specially the women as it increases women's participation in both private and
public activities i.e. in household decision making and as active citizens in the community affairs
and national development.

• Today, we see migration of people from villages to the cities, in such situation non-formal
education can help people in acquiring new skills according to the needs of occupation, time and
place.

Approaches of non-formal Education

advocacy approach

The advocacy approach in non-formal education involves promoting and supporting the
importance of non-formal education through awareness-building, policy influence, and
community engagement. Advocacy seeks to create a favorable environment for non-formal
education by influencing public opinion, garnering support from stakeholders, and shaping policies
that recognize and value non-formal learning.
ideological approach

An ideological approach in non-formal education involves incorporating specific beliefs, values,

or ideologies into the design, content, and delivery of educational programs. This approach aims
to shape individuals' perspectives, attitudes, and behaviors in line with a particular ideology.

empiricist approach

An empiricist approach in non-formal education is rooted in the philosophy of empiricism, which

emphasizes the importance of direct experience and observation as the foundation for knowledge.
In the context of non-formal education, an empiricist approach prioritizes hands-on learning,
practical experiences, and the application of knowledge in real-life situations.

pragmatic approach

A pragmatic approach in non-formal education is characterized by a focus on practical, real-world

applications of knowledge and skills. This approach is rooted in pragmatism, a philosophical
tradition that emphasizes the practical consequences of ideas and the importance of learning that
is relevant to everyday life. In non-formal education, a pragmatic approach aims to address
immediate needs, solve problems, and produce tangible outcomes.

additive approach

The additive approach in non-formal education involves incorporating additional or supplementary

educational experiences to complement and enrich the existing knowledge and skills of learners.
This approach recognizes the diversity of learning pathways and seeks to enhance individuals'
capabilities by adding valuable elements to their existing educational background.

scope of non-formal education

• The scope of non-formal education is broad and diverse, encompassing a wide range of learning
opportunities that occur outside the formal education system.

• Lifelong Learning.

• Skill Development.
• Remedial Education.

• Community Development.

• Adult Education.

• Workplace Training.

• Entrepreneurship Education.

• Personal Development.

• Civic Education.

• Technology and Digital Literacy.

• Environmental Education.

• Inclusive Education.

• Alternative Education Models.

method used in non-formal education

• Experiential Learning.

• Workshops and Seminars.

• Field Trips and Site Visits.

• Role-Playing and Simulations.

• Cultural and Artistic Activities.

• Storytelling and Narratives.

• Demonstration.

• Illustrative talk.

Materials used in non-formal education

• Printed Resources.

• Audiovisual Materials.

• Training Kits.

• Models and Samples.

• Games.

• Realia (Real-life Objects).

Issues and challenges to be addressed in non-formal education

• Limited access to resources, including materials, infrastructure, and technology, can hinder the
effectiveness of non-formal education programs.

• In many regions, there may be a lack of clear policy frameworks and support for non-formal
education.

concepts of adult education and lifelong learning

• Adult education refers to organized educational activities specifically designed for adults,
typically beyond the age of formal schooling. It encompasses a wide range of formal and non-
formal learning opportunities aimed at meeting the diverse needs and interests of adult learners.

Characteristics:

• Diverse Learner Base.

• Flexible Formats.

• Relevance to Life and Work.

Goals:

• Career Advancement.

• Personal Development.

• Community Engagement.
Lifelong Learning

• Lifelong learning is a broader concept that extends beyond formal education and encompasses
the continuous pursuit of knowledge, skills, and personal development throughout one's entire life.
It recognizes that learning is a lifelong process that occurs in various contexts and settings.

Characteristics:

• Informal and Formal Learning.

• Self-Motivated.

• Adaptable to Change.

Goals

• Personal Enrichment.

• Professional Development.

• Adaptability.

Theories of adult and lifelong education

Lindeman theory

The theory of adult education put forth by Eduard Lindeman, known as the Lindeman theory, is
often associated with the social aspect of adult learning. Lindeman was an American educator,
social philosopher, and advocate for adult education. His ideas, outlined in his book "The Meaning
of Adult Education," published in 1926, have significantly influenced the field of adult education.

Social Purpose of Education:

• He believed that adult education should not only serve personal growth but also contribute to the
betterment of society.

Informal and Cooperative Learning:

• He argued that adults learn best in natural, social settings through shared experiences,
conversations, and collaboration.

Experiential Learning:
• He advocated for learning through direct experience and active participation in real-life
situations, emphasizing the importance of practical, hands-on learning.

Dialogue and Interaction:

• He stressed the value of meaningful conversations and discussions among learners, promoting a
democratic exchange of ideas and perspectives.

Life-Centered Learning:

• Lindeman proposed that adult education should be life centered, focusing on the real-life
experiences, challenges, and interests of learners. The curriculum should be relevant to the
learners' daily lives, addressing immediate needs and concerns.

Democratic Education:

• Lindeman advocated for a democratic approach to education, where learners actively participate
in decision-making processes related to their learning experiences.

Integration of Education and Social Action:

• Adult education should not be confined to the classroom but should extend to social and
community involvement, fostering an informed and engaged citizenry.

Knowles theory of adult education

• Malcolm Knowles, an American educator and adult learning theorist, is often credited with
developing the theory of andragogy, which is the art and science of adult learning.

Self-Concept:

• Adults have a self-concept that emphasizes their self-direction and a desire to take responsibility
for their own learning.

Experience:

• Knowles emphasized that adults' experiences should be acknowledged and used as a foundation
for learning. Life experiences serve as a rich resource for meaningful learning.

Readiness to Learn:
• Adults are ready to learn when they perceive that it will help them solve real-life problems or
address immediate needs. Learning is most effective when it is relevant and applicable to the
challenges adults are facing in their lives.

Orientation to Learning:

• Adults are task- or problem-centered in their orientation to learning. They are motivated to learn
when they see a direct connection between the learning objectives and their goals, tasks, or
problems.

Motivation:

• Adult learners are motivated by internal factors, such as the desire for self-improvement and
increased competence.

Need to Know:

• Clear objectives, relevance, and practical applications of knowledge are crucial for adult learners.

Problem-Solving Approach:

• They engage more actively when presented with real-world problems that require critical thinking
and application of knowledge to find solutions.

Intrinsic Motivation:

• Adults are motivated by internal factors such as a desire for personal growth, competence, and
the satisfaction derived from learning itself.

Approaches of adult and lifelong education

integrated approach

An integrated approach to adult education involves combining various strategies, methods, and
resources to create a comprehensive and effective learning experience for adult learners. This
approach recognizes that adults have diverse learning needs, motivations, and backgrounds, and
aims to address these complexities through a holistic and adaptable framework.

target oriented approach of adult education

A target-oriented approach in adult education involves setting specific and measurable learning
objectives or targets for adult learners. This approach is goal-driven, with a focus on achieving
well-defined outcomes within a specified timeframe.

humanist approach

The humanist approach to adult education is rooted in humanistic psychology, which emphasizes
the individual's capacity for self-determination, personal growth, and self-actualization. This
educational philosophy places a strong emphasis on the learner's intrinsic motivation, feelings, and
experiences.

behaviorist approach

The behaviorist approach to adult education is based on the principles of behaviorism, a

psychological theory that focuses on observable behaviors and the environmental factors that
influence them. In the context of adult education, behaviorism emphasizes the role of
reinforcement, repetition, and external stimuli in shaping and modifying adult learners' behavior.

Curriculum Development

Curriculum Development is the step-by-step process of designing and improving the course
offered at schools, colleges and universities.

• The scope of curriculum studies encompasses the theory, planning, design, development,
implementation, and evaluation of curriculum.

• Once the curriculum developers decide what is to be taught, who is to be taught, and who is in
control of what the content of the curriculum is, the process can proceed to the planning and
development stage. This is followed by the implementation of the curriculum and its evaluation.

Curriculum studies incorporate a variety of processes including:

• curriculum theory,

• curriculum planning,

• curriculum design,
• curriculum development,

• curriculum implementation, and

• curriculum evaluation.

Curriculum Planning

• Curriculum planning can be viewed as the process of gathering, selecting, balancing, and
synthesizing relevant information from many sources to design those experiences that will assist
the learner to attain the goals of education (Glen, Hass, 1980).

Thus, it deals with seeking key answers to crucial questions such as:

• What should be taught?

• How should it be taught?

• To what segment of the population?

• What should be the relationship between the various components of the curriculum?

stages of the curriculum development process as follows:

• Needs analysis or assessment.

• Setting goals and objectives.

• Course organization.

• Selecting and preparing teaching materials.

• Evaluation.

Types Of Curriculum Development Models:

Learner-Centered Design

The learner-centered design focuses on the understanding that each learner has different
characteristics. The teachers or instructors are to give opportunities to the learners to take
ownership of a project or assignment.
• They require to create chances for independent learning with well-regulated liberty. This indicates
that students take a more active role in the classroom, but it is to be done under the instructor's
guidance.

There are four distinct attributes of learner-centered design, which includes:

• Context- This refers to the assignments and tasks given in the classroom that should have real-
world application. Consequently, the relevant context in student learning will help learners to
connect with what they are learning.

• Construction - Learners should relate their own experiences and prior learning with new
learning.

• Collaboration- Creating an environment and providing opportunities that encourage

collaboration between classmates. Activities like group discussions and team assignments allows
the learners to only form individuality but also expose to others’ opinions.

• Conversation- Exercises to improve learners' communication skills are mandatory, and hence
instructors should employ them accordingly.

Subject-Centered Design

• Subject-centered design is a traditional approach to curriculum that focuses on a particular

Subject matter or discipline rather than on the individual. Additionally, during the curriculum
development process, this approach includes four subtypes of curriculum designs: subject-area
design, discipline design, broad-field design, and correlation design.

Problem-Centered Design

• Problem-centered design is an approach that focuses on developing problem-solving skills,

thinking and communication skills. This is a student-centric strategy wherein the learners are given
problematic situations and encouraged to solve them after careful observation.
Principles Of Curriculum Development

Principle Of Totality of Experiences

• It is imperative to realize that curriculum does not merely indicate academic subjects traditionally
taught in schools and colleges. It also includes the totality of experiences a student gains through
several curricular, extra-curricular and co-curricular activities.

Principle Of Child-Centeredness

• Instead of sticking to the predetermined curriculum, instructors must consider the child’s
concerns, motives, and needs while developing the curriculum. In addition, while planning any
curricular activities, educators must consider ways to enrich learners’ interests.

Principle Of Conservation and Creativity

• While developing a curriculum, it is mandatory to include subjects and experiences that would
help conserve cultural heritage. Furthermore, one of the most essential principles of curriculum
development is that the curriculum cannot be static.

• On the contrary, it should be subject to modification as per the requirement aligned with the
changing global educational trends and students’ needs.

Principle Of Integration

• The curriculum should be planned in such a way that varied subjects could be added at different
stages of education. Similarly, the existing subjects should be able to integrate with other subjects
apart from enabling the students to correlate with the content.

Principle Of Flexibility

• One of the ideal qualities that a curriculum should have is flexibility and dynamism, as this will
be instrumental in serving the needs and concerns of individuals and society. Also, timely changes
and appropriate modifications to the curriculum allows educators and learners alike to stay updated
with academic goals.

Principle Of Utility
• Curriculum construction should follow the principle of utility, according to which educators must
include content that is useful to the individual and society. In addition, the curriculum must consist
of rich and valuable content that would be useful later in life.

Principle Of Character Formation

• The goal of the curriculum is not just educating learners through bookish knowledge. It should
also encourage the development of character and personality in students. Therefore, the curriculum
must aid in students’ character training throughout the academic years.

Principle Of Mental Discipline

• A significant task of the curriculum is to foster learners' various mental faculties or powers
through cognitive training and practice.

Principle Of Social Fulfillment

• Education aims to provide the overall development of the students through comprehensive
teaching styles and content. Moreover, the curriculum should also consider adding the element of
social life so that learners could gain insight into becoming responsible citizens.

Bloom’s Taxonomy

• The foundation idea of Bloom’s Taxonomy levels is that all learners are continuously learning,
and learning is a continuous lifelong process.

The Original Taxonomy (1956)

The six levels of original taxonomy-

Knowledge

• This stage caters to the recall of the knowledge that the learners have gained. This section deals
with the recall of specifics and universals, the recall of processes, or the recall of a pattern,
structure, or setting.
Comprehension

• This stage refers to a type of understanding or apprehension so that individuals know what is
being communicated without getting related to all the teachings done or looking into the
implications. As the word suggests, this stage is related to the understanding part of the teachings.

Example-

• when a student describes a theory in his own words.

• Technologies used for it in today’s time: taking notes digitally.

Application

• This stage refers to using abstractions in a real-life or concrete situation. This stage is a practical
part when the student applies whatever he has learned in the situations as and when required.
Students apply the concepts learned in a classroom surroundings to novel situations in the
workplace.

Analysis

• The analysis stage is the breaking down or subdividing of the communication into its constituent
elements or subparts such that the hierarchy of the subject matter being taught is clear and the
relation between concepts is also made clear. In this stage, the learner distinguishes between the
facts and the inferences.

Synthesis

• In this stage of the taxonomy, the learner is thought to have to build a structure or pattern from
very diverse elements. After the detailed analysis, part of the subject matter learner is expected to
bring a conscience of all the detailed work done and heading towards creating a new meaning or
structure of what is learned.

Evaluation

• Evaluation is when the student finally makes judgments about the values of ideas or materials.
The students are making a final image of the added value or the subject matter itself.

Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy (2001)

Remember

• Here, remembering means recalling, and recalling the subject matter which will be taught in the
class. The learner here tries to recall all the related knowledge he has connected to the topic being
taught in the class.

Understand

• The understanding stage is identified with interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing,

inferring, comparing, and explaining. The learner absorbs and decodes whatever is being taught in
the classroom.

Apply

• In this stage, the learner needs to apply whatever he/she has learned in the practical, real-life
scenario. This stage is the same as the application part of the original taxonomy, where learners
put the knowledge gained to the test in real-life situations.

The processes of cognition associated with this stage are

• Executing: This stage of executing is where the carrying out of the knowledge is done.

• Implementing: The implementing part of the taxonomy is associated with using the knowledge.

• Analyze- In this stage, the process is analyzed in detail about the subject matter taught in the
class scenario. Here the learner is expected to break down concepts and find the exact relationship
between them.

The three processes associated with this stage are-

• Differentiating: This stage is related to differentiating, which is discriminating and

distinguishing, and selecting accordingly.

• Organizing: This means finding, structuring, and integrating accordingly.

• Attributing: This means deconstructing.

• Evaluate - In this stage, the learner is expected to gauge or judge the subject matter being taught.
Evaluation can be divided into following

• Checking: This is related to coordinating, detecting, monitoring, and testing accordingly.

• Critiquing: This is related to judging the subject being taught.

• Create - In this stage; the learner is expected to produce or design according to the subject matter
being taught in the classroom scenario.

The processes of cognition associated with this stage are-

• Generating: This word is related to hypothesizing.

• Planning: This is related to designing.

• Producing: This is related to construction.

Audio visual aids

• Visual aids are any instructional device that can be seen. But not hear.

• Audio aids are any instructional device that can be heard but not seen.

• Definition

• 1. Burton : AV aids are those sensory objects or images which initiate or stimulate and reinforce
learning.

• 2. Good’s Dictionary of education: AV aids are anything by means of which learning process
may be encouraged or carried on through the sense of hearing or sense of sight.

People generally remember

• 10 percent of what they READ.

• 20 percent of what they HEAR.

• 30 percent of what they SEE.

• 50 percent of what they HEAR AND SEE.

• 70 percent of what they SAY.

• 90 percent of what they SAY as they Do a thing.

Important values of AV aids: -

• Best motivators.

• Help to reduce verbalism

• Variety.

• Based on maxims of teaching.

• Helpful in attracting attention.

• Saving of energy and time.

• Realism.

• Meeting individual differences.

• Encouragement to healthy classroom interaction.

• Spread of education on a mass scale.

• Reinforcement to learners.

• Positive transfer of learning and training.

• Positive environment for creative discipline.

Characteristics of good audio visual aids-

• Meaningful and purposeful.

• Locally available materials should be used in the preparation.

• Accurate in every aspect.

• Simple.

• Cost effective as well as cheap.

• Large enough to be properly seen by the whole students in the class.

• Up to date.

• Easily portable.

• Motivate the learner.

Drawbacks-

• These are helpful in teaching, but they will not substitute teachers and books.

• It requires more time for planning and preparing.

Principles in the use of audio-visual aids-

Principles of selection- they should suit the age level, and other characteristics of the learners.

• It should be interesting.

• They should be the true representatives of the real things.

Principle of preparation- as for as possible locally available materials should be used.

• The teachers should receive some training in the preparation of aids.

• The teachers themselves should prepare some of the aids.

Principle of proper presentation- teachers should carefully visualize the use of teaching aids
before their actual presentation.

• They should fully familiar themselves with the use and manipulation of the aids.

• No damage.

• The aid should be displayed properly so that all the students are able to see it.

Principle of response- teachers guide the students to respond activity to the AV aids.

Principle of evaluation- continuous evaluation is necessary.

Audio visual aids

flash Card and Flip Chart-

• Flash card and flip chart are one of the widely used communication materials in the health care
setting.

• Flash cards are a set of pictures on compact paper cards flashed one by one in logical, sequence.
They can be self-made or commercially prepared and are made up of charts or drawing paper using
colors, ink for writing and drawing. Flash card and flip chart are a series picture with a script that
tells the story.

Advantages-

• That it can be carried to the field and explained to people.

• It can be tailored to meet the target group and it is flexible. Disadvantages-

• It needs special skills for preparation.

• it cannot be used for large group.

Purpose-

• Flash cards can be used for discussion and health education, preferably for a single message to
an audience of 15 people. This can be used for giving important information.

Advantages-

• Widely used for communication media.

• Flexible, portable.

• Can be used for illiterate group.

Flip Chart-

• It is a collection of charts on one single topic organized in sequence and fastened on the top (like
calendar). It can be used step by step for teaching.

Poster-

poster is a message in illustrated form, the message is precise, suggestive and expressive. poster is
a medium in which the message is given through pictorials and few words. The balance of visuals
and the words is done in such a way that a person looking at a poster can get the message at a
glance. The content of the poster should be eye catching.

Features of a Good Poster-

• message should be concise and clear

• Simplicity-easily understandable

• Idea-Based on single idea

• Layout--Organization after try out (blue print)

• Color-Suitable color combination should be used to make poster attractive and eye catching.

Advantages-

• It attracts attention and can give attention to urgent instructions

• Simplicity: It conveys the message quickly

• Poster leads to action with motivation.

• It can stand-alone and is self-explanatory.

Disadvantages-

• It does not always give enough information.

• When it is seen too often, it no longer attracts attention needs frequent change.

• It can be damaged easily by rains, storm etc.

• Can be used for limited period and information.

Pamphlets-

Pamphlets are short printed media on a specific subject for specific target group for example school
children, antenatal mothers etc. It is made up of a single sheet with one, two or more folds and
unfold sheets are leaflets, hand bills, brochures, booklets varying from 8 to 50 pages.
Purposes-

• Health education.

• Health campaign, mela and festival.

• Teaching purposes for different group.

Features of Good Pamphlet-

• It should be attractive

• Message should be in simple sentences, familiar words and local languages

• Message should be based on target group

• Material should be arranged in order.

• Pictures and drawing should be used to visualize the idea.

Advantages-

• Pamphlets can be read loudly in a group or displayed on board. It can be circulated among many
people and used individually. Can be used to reinforce learning.

Disadvantages-

• Limited to literate people.

• May not provide adequate information.

• Doesn't ensure learning.

Black Board-
It is one of the most commonly used Audio-visual aids. It is one of the oldest simplest and effective
visual aid. It can be fixed or portable and can be made of materials such as slate, plastic, glass,
cement or wood with black paint etc. Roller boards are also available.

Advantages-

• it is simple, easy and more appropriate for classroom settings.

• It is economic and reusable.

• It is simple to use with little practice.

• It encourages active doing, and seeing by audience.

• Mistakes can be quickly erased.

Disadvantages –

• Written material cannot be preserved.

• Can not be used for a large audience.

• Requires imagination, initiative, practice and preparation.

• Interrupts communication.

• Chalk dust is harmful.

Bulletin Board-

Bulletin board is hardboard made up of plywood with flannel covering on the board. Study material
or current news are displayed in a visualized form.

Purposes-

• It motivates the learners.

• It gives the correct initial information.

Transparencies-

• The overhead projector facilitates an easy low-cost interactive environment for educators.
Teaching materials can be pre-printed on plastic sheets, upon which the educator can directly write
using a non-permanent, washable color marking pen.

Advantages of Transparencies-

• The projector is simple to use.

• Can be used in almost any training room which has electricity.

• Can be used with the classroom lights on

• Can be prepared in advance which saves Time.

• Are inexpensive.

• Can be prepared quickly and easily.

• Can be used repeatedly

Disadvantages of Transparencies-

• Cannot project text and images directly from the printed page.

• Be careful not to block the participants’ view of the screen.

Slides-

• Slide projectors were also widely used in educational and other institutional settings.
Photographic film slides and projectors have mostly been replaced by image files on digital storage
media shown on a projection screen by using a video projector or simply displayed on a large-
screen video monitor.

Advantages of Slides-

• Relatively inexpensive and easy to produce.

• Can be made locally by the trainer.

• Are good for showing individual steps of a procedure or close-ups of equipment.

• Can be shown in a fairly light room.

• Can be used with audiotapes to produce a slide show with narration.

Disadvantages of Slides-

• Slide projectors are much more expensive than overhead projectors.

• Slide projectors are more fragile than and do not tolerate voltage fluctuations as well as overhead
projectors.

• Slides are not updated as easily or produced as inexpensively as transparencies.

Radio-

Radio programme broadcast health and social messages which can be listened by
communities/groups at a time. It is a one-way communication. Listener cannot clarify the doubts,
hence he or she may not adopt the health message.

Disadvantages-

• Needs electricity battery

• Gives one-way communication and no feedback

• timing may not be suitable to all.

linguaphone -

The linguaphone is a kind of gramophone. It is specially designed for helping the children in
learning pronunciation or the other sound peculiarities of the language. In a linguaphone a sound
amplifier is always fitted.