Lesson 1

Sets and Relations

Sets
Sets, in mathematics, are an organized collection of objects and can be
represented in set-builder form or roster form. Usually, sets are represented in curly
braces {}, for example, A = {1,2,3,4} is a set. Also, check the set symbols here.
In sets theory, you will learn about sets and it’s properties. It was developed to describe
the collection of objects. You have already learned about the classification of sets here.
The set theory defines the different types of sets, symbols and operations performed.

What are the Elements of a Set

Example: A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }
Since a set is usually represented by the capital letter. Thus, A is the set and 1, 2, 3,
4, 5 are the elements of the set or members of the set. The elements that are written in the

small letter in case of alphabets. Also, we can write it as 1 ∈ A, 2 ∈ A etc. The cardinal
set can be in any order but cannot be repeated. All the set elements are represented in

number of the set is 5. Some commonly used sets are as follows:

● N: Set of all natural numbers
● Z: Set of all integers
● Q: Set of all rational numbers
● R: Set of all real numbers
● Z+: Set of all positive integers
●
Order of Sets
The order of a set defines the number of elements a set is having. It describes the
size of a set. The order of set is also known as the cardinality.
The size of set whether it is is a finite set or an infinite set said to be set of finite order or
infinite order, respectively.

Representation of Sets
The sets are represented in curly braces, {}. For example, {2,3,4} or {a,b,c} or
{Bat, Ball, Wickets}. The elements in the sets are depicted in either the Statement form,
Roster Form or Set Builder Form.

Statement Form
In statement form, the well-defined descriptions of a member of a set are written
and enclosed in the curly brackets.
For example, the set of even numbers less than 15.
In statement form, it can be written as {even numbers less than 15}.

Roster Form
In Roster form, all the elements of a set are listed.
For example, the set of natural numbers less than 5.
Natural Number = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,……….
Natural Number less than 5 = 1, 2, 3, 4
Therefore, the set is N = { 1, 2, 3, 4 }

Set Builder Form

The general form is, A = { x : property }
Example: Write the following sets in set builder form: A={2, 4, 6, 8}
Solution:
2=2x1
4=2x2
6=2x3

So, the set builder form is A = {x: x=2n, n ∈ N and 1 ≤ n ≤ 4}

8=2x4

Also, Venn Diagrams are the simple and best way for visualized representation of sets.

Types of Sets
We have several types of sets in Maths. They are empty set, finite and infinite
sets, proper set, equal sets, etc. Let us go through the classification of sets here.

Empty Set
A set which does not contain any element is called an empty set or void set or null
set. It is denoted by { } or Ø.
A set of apples in the basket of grapes is an example of an empty set because in a grapes
basket there are no apples present.

Singleton Set
A set which contains a single element is called a singleton set.
Example: There is only one apple in a basket of grapes.

Finite set
A set which consists of a definite number of elements is called a finite set.
Example: A set of natural numbers up to 10.
A = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}

Infinite set
A set which is not finite is called an infinite set.
Example: A set of all natural numbers.
A = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9……}

Equivalent set
If the number of elements is the same for two different sets, then they are called
equivalent sets. The order of sets does not matter here. It is represented as:
n(A) = n(B)
where A and B are two different sets with the same number of elements.
Example: If A = {1,2,3,4} and B = {Red, Blue, Green, Black}
In set A, there are four elements and in set B also there are four elements. Therefore, set
A and set B are equivalent.

Equal sets
The two sets A and B are said to be equal if they have exactly the same elements,
the order of elements do not matter.
Example: A = {1,2,3,4} and B = {4,3,2,1}
A=B

Disjoint Sets
The two sets A and B are said to be disjoint if the set does not contain any
common element.
Example: Set A = {1,2,3,4} and set B = {5,6,7,8} are disjoint sets, because there is no
common element between them.

Subsets

denoted as A ⊆ B. Even the null set is considered to be the subset of another set. In
A set ‘A’ is said to be a subset of B if every element of A is also an element of B,

general, a subset is a part of another set.

Then {1,2} ⊆ A.
Example: A = {1,2,3}

Similarly, other subsets of set A are: {1},{2},{3},{1,2},{2,3},{1,3},{1,2,3},{}.

Note: The set is also a subset of itself.
If A is not a subset of B, then it is denoted as A⊄B.

If A ⊆ B and A ≠ B, then A is called the proper subset of B and it can be written

Proper Subset

as A⊂B.
Example: If A = {2,5,7} is a subset of B = {2,5,7} then it is not a proper subset of B =
{2,5,7}
But, A = {2,5} is a subset of B = {2,5,7} and is a proper subset also.

Superset
If set A is a subset of set B and all the elements of set B are the elements of set A,
then A is a superset of set B. It is denoted by A⊃B.
Example: If Set A = {1,2,3,4} is a subset of B = {1,2,3,4}. Then A is superset of B.

Universal Set
A set which contains all the sets relevant to a certain condition is called the
universal set. It is the set of all possible values.
Example: If A = {1,2,3} and B {2,3,4,5}, then universal set here will be:
U = {1,2,3,4,5}
 Lesson 2
Operations on Sets
In set theory, the operations of the sets are carried when two or more sets combine to
form a single set under some of the given conditions. The basic operations on sets are:
● Union of sets
● Intersection of sets
● A complement of a set
● Cartesian product of sets.
● Set difference
Basically, we work more on union and intersection of sets operations, using Venn
diagrams.

Union of Sets

elements of set A and set B. It is denoted as A ∪ B.

If set A and set B are two sets, then A union B is the set that contains all the

A ∪ B = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
Example: Set A = {1,2,3} and B = {4,5,6}, then A union B is:

Example:
Set A = {1, 4, 6, 8}

A ∪ B = {1,2,4,6,8,9}
Set B = {2, 4, 8, 9},

Intersection of Sets
If set A and set B are two sets, then A intersection B is the set that contains only
the common elements between set A and set B. It is denoted as A ∩ B.
Example 1: Set A = {1,2,3} and B = {4,5,6}, then A intersection B is:
A ∩ B = { } or Ø
Since A and B do not have any elements in common, so their intersection will give null
set.
Example 2:
Set A = {1, 4, 6, 8}
Set B = {0, 2, 4, 8, 9}
A ∩ B = {4,8}
Draw a Venn Diagram for A ∩ B

Complement of Sets
The complement of any set, say P, is the set of all elements in the universal set
that are not in set P. It is denoted by P’.
Example 1:
U = {1,2,3,4,5}
Set A = {1, 4, 6, 8}
P’= {2, 3, 5}

Example 2:
U = {1,2,3,4,5, 7,9}
Set B = {2, 4, 6, 8}
P’= {1, 3, 5,7,9}

1. P ∪ P′ = U
Properties of Complement sets

2. P ∩ P′ = Φ
3. Law of double complement : (P′ )′ = P
4. Laws of empty/null set(Φ) and universal set(U), Φ′ = U and U′ = Φ.
Cartesian Product of sets
If set A and set B are two sets then the cartesian product of set A and set B is a set
of all ordered pairs (a,b), such that a is an element of A and b is an element of B. It is
denoted by A × B.

A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A and b ∈ B}
We can represent it in set-builder form, such as:

Example: set A = {1,2,3} and set B = {Bat, Ball}, then;

A × B = {(1,Bat),(1,Ball),(2,Bat),(2,Ball),(3,Bat),(3,Ball)}

Difference of Sets
If set A and set B are two sets, then set A difference set B is a set which has
elements of A but no elements of B. It is denoted as A – B.
Example: A = {1,2,3} and B = {2,3,4}
A – B = {1}

Sets Formulas
Some of the most important set formulas are:
For any three sets A, B and C

n ( A ∪ B ) = n(A) + n(B) – n ( A ∩ B)

If A ∩ B = ∅, then n ( A ∪ B ) = n(A) + n(B)

n( A – B) + n( A ∩ B ) = n(A)

n( B – A) + n( A ∩ B ) = n(B)

n( A – B) + n ( A ∩ B) + n( B – A) = n ( A ∪ B )

n ( A ∪ B ∪ C ) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n ( A ∩ B) – n ( B ∩ C) – n ( C ∩ A) + n ( A ∩ B ∩ C)

Properties of Sets
Commutative Property :
● A∪B = B∪A
● A∩B = B∩A

● A ∪ ( B ∪ C) = ( A ∪ B) ∪ C
Associative Property :

● A ∩ ( B ∩ C) = ( A ∩ B) ∩ C
 ● A ∪ ( B ∩ C) = ( A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
Distributive Property :

● A ∩ ( B ∪ C) = ( A ∩ B) ∪ ( A ∩ C)

: ( A ∪ B )’ = A’ ∩ B’
De morgan’s Law :

● Law of intersection : ( A ∩ B )’ = A’ ∪ B’
● Law of union

● A ∪ A’ = A’ ∪ A =U
Complement Law :

● A ∩ A’ = ∅

Idempotent Law And Law of a null and universal set :

● A∪A=A
For any finite set A

● ∅’ = U
● A∩A=A

● ∅ = U’

Example of Sets
Here are a few examples, given to represent the elements of a set.
Example 1:
Write the given statement in three methods of representation of a set:
The set of all integers that lies between -1 and 5

Solution:
The methods of representations of sets are:
Statement Form: { I is the set of integers that lies between -1 and 5}

Set-builder Form: I = { x: x ∈ I, -1 < x < 5 }

Roster Form: I = { 0,1, 2, 3,4 }

Find A U B and A ⋂ B and A – B.

Example 2:

If A = {a, b, c, d} and B = {c, d}.

Solution:
A = {a, b, c, d} and B = {c, d}

A ⋂ B = {c, d} and
A U B = {a, b, c, d}

A – B = {a, b}
 Lesson 3
Types of Relations
1. Reflexive Relation: A relation R on set A is said to be a reflexive if (a, a) ∈ R for
every a ∈ A.
Example : If A = {1, 2, 3, 4} then R = {(1, 1) (2, 2), (1, 3), (2, 4), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 4)}. Is

Solution: The relation is reflexive as for every a ∈ A. (a, a) ∈ R, i.e. (1, 1), (2, 2),
a relation reflexive?

(3, 3), (4, 4) ∈ R.

Example 2: X = Y ={1, 2, 3, 4}. Determine which relation is reflexive.

R1= {(1, 1) (2, 2), (1, 3), (2, 4), (3, 3), (3, 4), (4, 4} = reflexive
R2= {(1, 1) (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (4, 4} = not reflexive
R3 = {(1, 1) (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4} = reflexive

2. Irreflexive Relation: A relation R on set A is said to be irreflexive if (a, a) ∉

R for every a ∈ A.

Example 1: Let A = {1, 2, 3} and R = {(1, 2), (2, 2), (3, 1), (1, 3)}. Is the relation

Solution: The relation R is not reflexive as for every a ∈ A, (a, a) ∉ R, i.e., (1, 1)
R reflexive or irreflexive?

and (3, 3) ∉ R. The relation R is not irreflexive as (a, a) ∉ R, for some a ∈ A,

i.e., (2, 2) ∈ R.
Example 2: X = Y ={1, 2, 3, 4}. Determine which relation is reflexive.
R1= {(1, 2) (1, 3), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4), = not irreflexive because there is (2, 2),
R2= {(1, 2) (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 4} = irreflexive
R3 = {(1, 1) (1, 3), (3, 1), (4, 3} =not irreflexive because there is (1, 1)

3. Symmetric Relation: A relation R on set A is said to be symmetric iff (a, b) ∈ R

⟺ (b, a) ∈ R.

Example 1: Let A = {1, 2, 3} and R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 3), (3, 2)}.

Solution: The relation is symmetric as for every (a, b) ∈ R, we have (b, a) ∈ R,

Is a relation R symmetric or not?

i.e., (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 3), (3, 2) ∈ R but not reflexive because (3, 3) ∉ R.

1. Relation ⊥r is symmetric since a line a is ⊥r to b, then b is ⊥r to a.

Example of Symmetric Relation:

2. Also, Parallel is symmetric, since if a line a is ∥ to b then b is also ∥ to a.

Example 2: X = Y ={1, 2, 3, 4}. Determine which relation is symmetric

R1= {(1, 1) (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 3), (3, 2), (4,4) = symmetric because of this (1, 2),
(2, 1), (2, 3), (3, 2),
R2= {(1, 2) (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 4} = not symmetric
 R3 = {(1, 1) (1, 3), (3, 1), (4, 3} = symmetric because of this (1, 3), (3, 1)

4. Antisymmetric Relation: A relation R on a set A is antisymmetric iff (a, b) ∈ R and (b,

a) ∈ R then a = b.

Example1: Let A = {1, 2, 3} and R = {(1, 1), (2, 2)}. Is the relation R
antisymmetric?
Solution: The relation R is antisymmetric as a = b when (a, b) and (b, a) both
belong to R.
Example2: Let A = {4, 5, 6} and R = {(4, 4), (4, 5), (5, 4), (5, 6), (4, 6)}. Is the
relation R antisymmetric?
Solution: The relation R is not antisymmetric as 4 ≠ 5 but (4, 5) and (5, 4) both
belong to R.

if for every (a, b) ∈ R implies that (b, a) does not belong to R.

5. Asymmetric Relation: A relation R on a set A is called an Asymmetric Relation

Example: X = Y ={1, 2, 3, 4}. Determine which relation is asymmetric

R1= {(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3,4) = asymmetric
R2= {(1, 2) (1, 3), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (4, 4} = not asymmetric because there is
(1, 3) and (3, 1) in the relation
R3 = {(1, 1) (1, 3), (3, 1), (4, 3} = not asymmetric because there is (1, 3) and (3, 1)

6. Transitive Relations: A Relation R on set A is said to be transitive iff (a, b) ∈ R

in the relation

and (b, c) ∈ R ⟺ (a, c) ∈ R.

Example1: Let A = {1, 2, 3} and R = {(1, 2), (2, 1), (1, 1), (2, 2)}. Is the relation
transitive?

have (a, c) ∈ R i.e, (1, 2) (2, 1) ∈ R ⇒ (1, 1) ∈ R.

Solution: The relation R is transitive as for every (a, b) (b, c) belong to R, we

Note1: The Relation ≤, ⊆ and / are transitive, i.e., a ≤ b, b ≤ c then a ≤ c

(ii) Let a ⊆ b, b ⊆ c then a ⊆ c

Note2: ⊥r is not transitive since a ⊥r b, b ⊥r c then it is not true that a ⊥r c. Since no

(iii) Let a/b, b/c then a/c.

line is ∥ to itself, we can have a ∥ b, b ∥ a but a ∦ a.

Thus ∥ is not transitive, but it will be transitive in the plane.

7. Identity Relation: Identity relation I on set A is reflexive, transitive and

symmetric. So identity relation I is an Equivalence Relation.
Example: A= {1, 2, 3} = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}

8. Void Relation: It is given by R: A →B such that R = ∅ (⊆ A x B) is a null

relation. Void Relation R = ∅ is symmetric and transitive but not reflexive.

9. Universal Relation: A relation R: A →B such that R = A x B (⊆ A x B) is a

universal relation. Universal Relation from A →B is reflexive, symmetric and
transitive. So this is an equivalence relation.
 Lesson 4
Equivalence Relation

In mathematics, an equivalence relation is a kind of binary relation that

should be reflexive, symmetric and transitive. The well-known example of an
equivalence relation is the “equal to (=)” relation. In other words, two elements of
the given set are equivalent to each other if they belong to the same equivalence
class. In this article, we will discuss the definition of equivalence relation, proof,
properties with many solved examples.
A relation R on a set A is said to be an equivalence relation.

Reflexive: A relation is said to be reflexive, if (a, a) ∈ R, for every a ∈ A.

Symmetric: A relation is said to be symmetric, if (a, b) ∈ R, then (b, a) ∈ R.
Transitive: A relation is said to be transitive if (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R, then (a,
c) ∈ R.
Equivalence relations can be explained in terms of the following examples:
● The sign of ‘is equal to (=)’ on a set of numbers; for example, 1/3 = 3/9.
● For a given set of triangles, the relation of ‘is similar to (~)’ and ‘is
congruent to (≅)’ shows equivalence.
● For a given set of integers, the relation of ‘congruence modulo n (≡)’
shows equivalence.
● The image and domain are the same under a function, shows the relation
of equivalence.
● For a set of all angles, ‘has the same cosine’.
● For a set of all real numbers,’ has the same absolute value’.
Equivalence Relation Proof
Here is an equivalence relation example to prove the properties.
Let us assume that R be a relation on the set of ordered pairs of positive integers
such that ((a, b), (c, d)) R if and only if ad=bc. Is R an equivalence relation?
In order to prove that R is an equivalence relation, we must show that R is
reflexive, symmetric and transitive.

The Proof for the given condition is given below:

Reflexive Property
According to the reflexive property, if (a, a) ∈ R, for every a∈A
For all pairs of positive integers,
((a, b),(a, b))∈ R.
Clearly, we can say
ab = ab for all positive integers.
Hence, the reflexive property is proved.

Symmetric Property
From the symmetric property,
if (a, b) ∈ R, then we can say (b, a) ∈ R
For the given condition,
if ((a, b),(c, d)) ∈ R, then ((c, d),(a, b)) ∈ R.
If ((a, b),(c, d))∈ R, then ad = bc and cb = da
since multiplication is commutative.
Therefore ((c, d),(a, b)) ∈ R
Hence symmetric property is proved.

Transitive Property
From the transitive property,
if (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R, then (a, c) also belongs to R
 For the given set of ordered pairs of positive integers,
((a, b), (c, d))∈ R and ((c, d), (e, f))∈ R,
then ((a, b),(e, f) ∈ R.
Now, assume that ((a, b), (c, d))∈ R and ((c, d), (e, f)) ∈ R.
Then we get, ad = cb and cf = de.
The above relation implies that a/b = c/d and that c/d = e/f,
so a/b = e/f we get af = be.
Therefore ((a, b),(e, f))∈ R.
Hence transitive property is proved.

Equivalence Relation Examples

Go through the equivalence relation examples and solutions provided here
Question 1:
Let assume that F is a relation on the set R real numbers defined by xFy if
and only if x-y is an integer. Prove that F is an equivalence relation on R.
Solution:
Reflexive: Consider x belongs to R,then x – x = 0 which is an integer. Therefore
xFx.
Symmetric: Consider x and y belongs to R and xFy. Then x – y is an integer.
Thus, y – x = – ( x – y), y – x is also an integer. Therefore yFx.
Transitive: Consider x and y belongs to R, xFy and yFz. Therefore x-y and y-z
are integers. According to the transitive property, ( x – y ) + ( y – z ) = x – z is
also an integer. So that xFz.
Thus, R is an equivalence relation on R.
Question 2:
Show that the relation R is an equivalence relation in the set A = { 1, 2, 3,
4, 5 } given by the relation R = { (a, b):|a-b| is even }.
Solution :
R = { (a, b):|a-b| is even }. Where a, b belongs to A
Reflexive Property :

From the given relation,

|a – a| = | 0 |=0
And 0 is always even.
Thus, |a-a| is even
Therefore, (a, a) belongs to R
Hence R is Reflexive

Symmetric Property :
From the given relation,
|a – b| = |b – a|
We know that |a – b| = |-(b – a)|= |b – a|
Hence |a – b| is even,
Then |b – a| is also even.
Therefore, if (a, b) ∈ R, then (b, a) belongs to R
Hence R is symmetric.

Transitive Property :
If |a-b| is even, then (a-b) is even.
Similarly, if |b-c| is even, then (b-c) is also even.
Sum of even number is also even
So, we can write it as a-b+ b-c is even
Then, a – c is also even
So,
|a – b| and |b – c| is even , then |a-c| is even.
Therefore, if (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R, then (a, c) also belongs to R
Hence R is transitive.

Practice problems on Equivalence Relation

Solve the practise problems on the equivalence relation given below:

1. Prove that the relation R is an equivalence relation, given that the set of
complex numbers is defined by z1R z2 ⇔[(z1-z2)/(z1+z2)] is real.
 2. Show that the given relation R is an equivalence relation, which is defined
by (p, q) R (r, s) ⇒ (p+s)=(q+r)
3. Check the reflexive, symmetric and transitive property of the relation x R y,
if and only if y is divisible by x, where x, y ∈ N.

What is meant by equivalence relation?

In mathematics, the relation R on the set A is said to be an equivalence
relation, if the relation satisfies the properties, such as reflexive property,
transitive property, and symmetric property.

What are the three different properties of the equivalence relation?

The three different properties of equivalence relation are:
Reflexive Property
Symmetric Property
Transitive Property
Explain reflexive, transitive and symmetric property.

A relation R is said to be reflective, if (x,x) ∈ R, for every x ∈ set A

A relation R is said to be symmetric, if (x,y) ∈ R, then (y, x) ∈ R
A relation R is said to be transitive, if (x, y) ∈ R and (y,z)∈ R, then (x, z) ∈ R
Can we say the empty relation is an equivalence relation?
We can say that the empty relation on the empty set is considered as an
equivalence relation. But, the empty relation on the non-empty set is not
considered as an equivalence relation.

Can we say every relation is a function?

No, every relation is not considered as a function, but every function is
considered as a relation.