THE MOLE

Relative Atomic Mass

 The atoms are too small to be weighed individually. It is more convenient to take
a particular unit mass and calculate how many times heavier or lighter than the
unit other atoms are i.e. compare the mass of an atom with that of a
standard/reference atom.
 This is done using a mass spectrometer and the unit of measuring atomic
masses is called the atomic mass unit (amu)
 Hydrogen was used as a standard/reference atom for long with its mass
arbitrarily fixed at 1.0000 amu. The masses of atoms of other elements were
then measured against it.
 For instance, a sodium atom was found to be 23 times heavier than a hydrogen
atom, thus its mass was taken as 23amu while an oxygen atom that was 16
times heavier than a hydrogen atom had a mass of 16amu.
 “23 times” and “16 times” are then referred to as relative atomic mass
(R.A.M.). Hence the relative atomic mass was defined as;

mass of one at om of an element

R.A.M. =
mass of one atom of hydrogen

 The use of hydrogen as a standard atom was abandoned because being a gas, it
became difficult to handle and transport.
 Since 1962, an atom of carbon-12 isotope has been adopted as the standard
hence the name carbon-12 scale. A carbon-12 atom was arbitrarily taken to
have a mass of exactly 12.0000amu.
 It means a hydrogen atom which is twelve times lighter than a carbon-12 atom
has a mass of 1amu or R.A.M. of 1. Similarly, a magnesium atom which is twice
as heavy as an atom of carbon has a mass of 24amu or R.A.M. of 24.
 The definition of relative atomic mass had to be defined to allow the
measurement of R.A.M. of all elements. Hence;

mass of an atom of an element

R.A.M. = 1
th the mass of an atom of carbon−12
12

 Carbon-12 was chosen as the standard/reference atom because;

i) It is a solid, thus it is easy to carry and handle
ii) It is stable i.e. not radioactive
iii) It is cheap and easy to find

NB:
i) R.A.M. is not an exact whole number because it is the average mass of
isotopes of an element
ii) R.A.M. is a ratio (comparison of two atomic masses) thus has no units.

 The relative atomic masses of some elements are given below;

H=1 Na = 23 K = 39 C = 12
N = 14 Ca = 40 O = 16 Fe = 56

1
 Cu = 63.5 I = 127 Zn = 65 Mn = 55
Mg = 24 P = 31 Cl = 35.5
Al = 27 Ba = 137 Cr = 52
Ag = 108 S = 32 Pb = 207

Avogadro’s number and the mole

 It is not physically possible to count the number of atoms in a substance or
during reactions. However it is possible to determine the number of atoms in a
given mass of a substance.
 Thus mass can be used as a means of counting the number of particles and vice-
versa.
 It has been established that specific masses of particular elements contain the
same number of atoms of the given element, for instance;

12g of carbon A atoms of carbon (where A is a very large number) OR

A atoms of carbon weigh 12g
A atoms of hydrogen weigh 1g
A atoms of magnesium weigh 24g
A atoms sodium weigh 23g
A atoms of sulphur weigh 32g

 12g, 1g, 24g, 23g and 32g are the relative atomic masses of carbon, hydrogen,
magnesium, sodium and sulphur respectively, expressed in grams.
 The relative atomic mass of an element expressed in grams contains the same
number of atoms called Avogadro’s number (Avogadro’s constant). This
number has been established to be exactly 6.023  1023 and is denoted as “L”
 A mole is the amount of any substance that contains Avogadro’s number of
particles of that substance. Substances may be elements, compounds,
molecules, etc while particles may mean atoms, ions, electrons, etc.

A dozen contains 12 items, a mole contains 6.023  1023 particles

A decade contains 10 years, a mole contains 6.023  1023 atoms
A century contains 100 runs, a mole contains 6.023  1023 molecules etc.

Examples
 One mole of carbon contains 6.023  1023 carbon atoms
 23 grams of sodium is one mole of sodium atoms and it contains 6.023  1023
atoms
 32 grams of oxygen gas is one mole of oxygen molecules and contains 6.023 
1023 molecules

The mole and the element

 Most elements consist of single atoms, however some exist as molecules.
Elementary gases, except the noble gases, exist as diatomic molecules. Ozone,
with three oxygen atoms in a molecule, is the only tri-atomic molecule.
 The mass of one mole of a substance is referred to as its molar mass.
 The molar mass of elements that exist as single atoms is equivalent to their
relative atomic mass expressed in grams e.g. the molar mass of sodium is 23g
because its R.A.M. is 23 while the molar mass of iron is 56g because its R.A.M. is
56.

2
 The molar mass of elementary gases that exist as molecules is a product of the
R.A.M. of the element and the number of atoms in the molecule. It is also called
the relative molecular mass (R.M.M.). For instance;
The R.M.M. of oxygen gas (O2) is 32 (16  2) and its molar mass is thus 32g
The R.M.M. of chlorine gas (Cl2) is 71 (35.5  2) and its molar mass is 71g

 The following formulae may be used to calculate molar masses, number of moles
and masses of substances when two of the three values are known.

Number of moles =
mass∈ grams
molar mass

Mass in grams = Number of moles  Molar mass

Molar mass =
mass∈ grams
number of moles

Worked Problems
1) How many moles of carbon atoms are there in 9g of carbon?

9
Number of moles = = 0.75 OR 12g of C 1 mole
12
9g of C x moles
9
x= = 0.75 moles
12

2) What is the mass of 0.25 moles of nitrogen atoms?

Mass of N = 0.25  14 = 3.5g OR 1 mole of N 14g

0.25 moles xg
 x = 0.25  14 = 3.5g

3) Determine the number of oxygen atoms in 0.4g of oxygen.

16g (1 mole) of oxygen 6.023  1023 atoms

0.4g of oxygen x atoms

6.0231023 0.4
= = 1.505  1022 atoms OR
16

0.4
Moles of oxygen = = 0.025  number of atoms = 0.025  6.023  1023 =
16
1.505  1022
4) What mass of sulphur contains 3.0115  1021 atoms?

6.023  1023 atoms of S 32g (1 mole) of S

3.0115  1021 atoms of S x g of S

3
 3.0115 ×1021 ×32
 x= = 0.16g OR
6.023 ×1023

3.0115 ×1021
Moles of S = = 0.005  mass of S = 0.005  32 = 0.16g
6.023 ×1023

5) How many moles are there in 7.1g of chlorine molecules?

A chlorine molecule consists of 2 chlorine atoms 71g 1 mole of Cl 2

R.M.M. of Cl2 = 35.5  2 = 71 7.1g x moles

7.1 7.1
 moles of Cl2 molecules = = 0.1 x= = 0.1 moles
71 71

6) Calculate the molar mass of an element whose 0.05 moles has a mass of 2.8g.

2.8
Molar mass = = 56g OR
0.05

2.8
0.05 mole 2.8g x= = 56g
0.05
1 mole xg

7) Calculate the mass of 0.25 moles of oxygen molecules.

An oxygen molecule consists of 2 oxygen atoms

R.M.M. of O2 = 16  2 = 32
 mass of O2 = 0.25  32 = 8g OR

1 mole of O2 32g
0.25 mole of O2 xg
 mass of O2 = 0.25  32 = 8g

Compounds and moles

 The relative formula mass (R.F.M.) of an ionic compound is the sum of the
relative atomic masses (R.A.M.) of elements in the formula of the compound e.g.
The R.F.M. of sodium hydroxide, NaOH = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40
The R.F.M. of calcium carbonate, CaCO 3 = 40+ 12 + (16  3) = 100
The R.F.M. of copper (II) sulphate, CuSO 4 = 63.5 + 32 + (16  4) = 159.5

 The relative molecular mass (R.M.M.) of a molecular compound is the sum of

the relative atomic masses (R.A.M.) of elements making up the molecule e.g.
The R.M.M. of water, H2O = (1  2) + 16 = 18
The R.M.M. of ammonia, NH3 = 14 + (1  3) = 17
The R.M.M. of sulphur (IV) oxide, SO2 = 32 + (16  2) = 64
 The molar mass of a compound is thus equivalent to its relative formula
mass/relative molecular mass expressed in grams.

4
 One mole of a molecular compound contains Avogadro’s number(6.023  1023)
of molecules of that compound e.g. one mole of oxygen gas contains 6.023 
1023 molecules of O2
 One mole of an ionic compound contains the number of moles of each element
depending on its formula e.g.
 One mole of sodium oxide, Na2O contains: 2 moles of sodium (2  6.023 
1023 atoms)
1 mole of oxygen (6.023  1023 atoms)
 One mole of copper (II) sulphate, CuSO4 contains: 1 mole of copper (6.023 
1023 atoms)
1 mole of sulphur (6.023  1023
atoms)
4 moles of oxygen (4  6.023  1023
atoms)
Or: 1 mole of Cu2+ ions (6.023 
23
10 ions)
1 mole of SO 42- ions (6.023 
23
10 ions)

Solved Problems
1) Find out the relative formula mass of the following compounds;
a) Sodium hydroxide f) Pentane(C5H12)
b) Sulphuric (VI) acid g) Potassium manganate(VII)
c) Ammonium sulphate h) (NH4)2SO4.FeSO4.6H2O
d) Iron (III) sulphate i) Lead (II) nitrate
e) Aluminium sulphate j) Sodium carbonate

2) How many molecules of water are contained in 36g of water?

3) How many moles of ammonia are in 3.4g of the gas?
4) Calculate the number of moles in the following masses;
a) 10g of sodium hydroxide c) 2.1g of sodium hydrogen
b) 20g of calcium carbonate carbonate
d) 331.5g of nitric (V) acid

5) How many atoms are in two moles of carbon (IV) oxide gas?
6) Determine the number of calcium and chloride ions in;
a) 1 mole of calcium chloride
b) 0.5 moles of calcium chloride

7) Calculate the number of ions in;

a) 8g of copper (II) sulphate (Cu= 64, S =32, O = 16 and L = 6.0  1023)
b) 1 mole of magnesium hydroxide (Mg = 24, H = 1, O = 16 and L = 6.0  1023)

Empirical and molecular formula

Percentage mass of an element
The percentage by mass of each element present in a compound can be calculated
from its formula.

5
Example 1: Find the percentage of each element present in zinc nitrate, Zn(NO 3)2.

Solution
1 atom of zinc, R.A.M. 65 = 65
2 atoms of nitrogen R.A.M. 14 = 28
6 atoms of oxygen R.A.M. 16 = 96
R.F.M. = 65 + 28 + 96 = 189

65
Percentage of zinc =  100 = 34.4%
189

28
Percentage of nitrogen =  100 = 14.8%
189

96
Percentage of oxygen =  100 = 50.8%
189

Example 2: Calculate the percentage by mass of water of crystallization in

hydrated copper (II) sulphate, CuSO4.5H2O.

Solution
1 atom of copper, R.A.M. 64 = 64
1 atom of sulphur, R.A.M. 32 = 32
4 atoms of oxygen, R.A.M. 16 = 64
5 molecules of water, R.M.M. 18 = 90
R.F.M. = 64 + 32 + 64 + 90 = 250

90
Percentage mass of water =  100 = 36%
250

Example 3: What mass of lead (II) nitrate could contain 13g of lead metal?

Solution
R.F.M. of Pb(NO3)2 = 207 + (2  14) + (6  16) = 331
331g Pb(NO3)2 207g Pb
x 13g Pb

331× 13
x= = 20.8g
207
NB: The percentages by mass add up to 100.

Questions
1. What is the percentage by mass of nitrogen in each of the following fertilizers;
a) Ammonium nitrate
b) Potassium nitrate
c) Ammonium sulphate
2. A metal sulphate, M2(SO4)3, contains 28% by mass of metal M. What is the
relative atomic mass of M?

6
Empirical Formula
 Given the percentage composition by mass of each element in a compound, it is
possible to determine the simplest possible formula for that compound.
 Empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio in which atoms combine
to form a compound.

Worked Examples
1. A piece of magnesium ribbon was burnt in air. The following results were
obtained;
Mass of crucible and lid a = 21.2g
Mass of crucible, lid and magnesium ribbon b = 23.3g
Mass of magnesium oxide, crucible and lid c = 24.7g
Mass of magnesium d = b-a
Mass of magnesium oxide e = c-a
Mass of oxygen f = e-d
Determine the empirical formula of magnesium oxide.

Solution
Mass of magnesium = 2.1g
Mass of oxygen = 1.4g
Elements Magnesium, Mg Oxygen, O

Mass(g) 2.1 1.4

R.A.M. 24 16

No. of moles 2.1 1.4

= 0.0875 = 0.0875
24 16
Mole ratio(Divide
through by the 0.0875 0.0875
smallest no. of moles) =1 =1
0.0875 0.0875
No. of atoms 1 1

Empirical Formula; Mg1O1 or MgO

2. Hydrogen gas is used to reduce copper (II) oxide in a combustion tube. The
following results were obtained in a typical experiment:
Mass of empty porcelain pot a = 12.5g
Mass of porcelain pot + copper (II) oxide b = 13.75g
Mass of porcelain boat + copper c= 13.5g
From the results, determine the simplest formula of the copper oxide that was
reduced. Solution
Mass of copper (II) oxide = b-a = 1.25g
Mass of copper = c-a = 1.00g
Mass of oxygen = b-c =0.25g
Element Copper, Cu Oxygen, O

7
 Mass(g) 1.00 0.25

R.A.M. 64 16

No. of moles 1 0.25

= 0.0156 = 0.015625
64 16
Mole ratio(Divide through
by the least no. of moles) 0.0156 0.015625
=1 1
0.0156 0.0156
No. of atoms
1 1

Empirical Formula is Cu1O1 or CuO

3. The percentage composition by mass of an oxide of iron is 70% iron and 30%
oxygen. Determine its empirical formula.

Solution
Elements Iron, Fe Oxygen, O
Percentage composition 70 30

Molar mass 56 16

No. of moles 70 30
= 1.25 = 1.875
56 16
Mole ratio(Divide through
by the least no. of moles) 1.25 1.875
=1 = 1.5
1.25 1.25
No. of atoms
2 3
Empirical formula: Fe2O3
4. Hydrated sodium sulphide, Na2S.nH2O, contains 67.5% by mass of water.
Determine the value of n. (Hint: The total percent composition by mass should
be 100, thus the percentage composition of sodium sulphide of crystallization is
100-67.5=32.5)

Solution
Compounds Na2S H2O
Mass/Percentage 32.5 67.5
composition
78 18
R.F.M.
32.5 67.5
No. of moles = 0.417 = 3.75
78 18
Ratio of moles(Divide

8
 through by least no. of 0.417 3.75
moles) =1 = 8.99  9
0.417 0.417
Formula units 1 9

Empirical formula: Na2S.9H2O

Thus n=9
NB: For hydrated salts, the water of crystallization and the salt are treated as
separate units on their own with their relative molecular mass/relative formula mass
taken as the molar masses.

Questions
1. 3.45g of metal X formed 4.65g of an oxide when burnt in air. Calculate the
empirical formula of this oxide given that R.A.M. of X = 23.
2. Calculate the empirical formula of the following compounds formed when:
a) 2.4g of carbon combined with 3.2g of oxygen
b) 2.6g of chromium combined with 2.4g of sulphur
c) 2.7g of aluminium combined with 2.4g of oxygen
3. Determine the empirical formula of compounds containing:
a) K = 39%, H= 1%, C = 12% and O = 48%
b) C = 80%, H = 20%
c) N = 35%, H = 5% and O = 60%
d) Mg = 72% and N = 28%

Molecular formula
 Molecular formula is the formula which shows the exact number of atoms of
each kind of element present in a compound.
 The molecular formula of a compound is a multiple of its empirical formula i.e.
the ratio of the number of atoms in the molecular formula is the same as that in
the empirical formula.
 If the empirical formula mass is E.F. and the molecular formula mass/relative
molecular mass is M.F., then:
M.F. = n(E.F.), where n is a whole number.

Examples
i) The empirical formula for glucose is CH 2O but its molecular formula is C6H12O6.
Then;
C6H12O6 = 6(CH2O) i.e. n=6 OR 180 = 6(30) where M.F. = 180 and E.F. = 30.
ii) The empirical formula for sodium peroxide is NaO but the true(molecular)
formula is Na2O2. Then; Na2O2 = 2(NaO) i.e. n=2 OR 78 = 2(39) where M.F. = 78
and E.F. = 39.

Worked Examples
1. A hydrocarbon contains 80% carbon by mass and its relative molecular mass is
30. How many hydrogen atoms are there in a molecule of this compound?

Solution
Element Carbon, C Hydrogen, H

9
 Percentage by mass 80 20

No. of moles 80 20
= 6.667 = 20
12 1
Mole ratio
6.667 20
=1 =3
6.667 6.667
No. of atoms
1 3

Empirical formula: CH3

Empirical formula mass(E.F.) = 12 + 3 = 15
Molecular formula mass(M.F.) = 30
15n = 30

30
n= =2 Thus molecular formula: 2(CH 3) = C2H6
15

2. A hydrocarbon burns completely in excess air to form 5.28g of carbon (IV) oxide
and 2.16g of water. If the relative molecular mass of the hydrocarbon is 84,
determine its molecular formula.

Solution
A hydrocarbon is a compound containing carbon and hydrogen only. Then the
mass of hydrogen and carbon will be obtained from the mass of water and
carbon (IV) oxide formed as shown below;
12× 5.28 2× 2.16
Mass of carbon in CO2 = = 1.44g Mass of hydrogen in H2O = =
44 18
0.24g

Element Carbon, C Hydrogen, H

Mass(g) 1.44 0.24

No. of moles 1.44 0.24

= 0.12 = 0.24
12 1
Mole ratio 0.12 0.24
=1 =2
0.12 0.12
No. of atoms
1 2

Empirical formula: CH2

E.F. mass = 14
M.F. mass = 84
84
 14n = 84  n = =6
14

10
 Thus molecular formula: 6(CH2) = C6H12

3. An organic acid contains 26.7% carbon, 2.2% hydrogen and the rest oxygen.
Determine its molecular formula if its relative molecular mass is 90.

Solution
Percent composition of oxygen = 100 - (26.7 + 2.2) = 71.1%
Element Carbon, C Hydrogen, H Oxygen, O
% composition 26.7 2.2 71.1

No. of moles 26.7 2.2 71.1

= 2.225 = 2.2 = 4.443
12 1 16
Mole ratio 2.225 2.2 4.443
1 =1 2
2.2 2.2 2.2
No. of atoms
1 1 2

Empirical formula: CHO2

E.F. mass = 12 + 1 + (16 2) = 45
M.F. mass = 90
90
45n = 90  n = =2
45

Thus molecular formula: 2(CHO2) = C2H2O4

Questions
1. When dry ammonia is passed over 3.2g of anhydrous copper (II) sulphate, a 4.9g
of a violet solid CuSO4.pNH3 was formed. Find the value of p.
2. An organic compound contains 24.4% carbon, 4.04% hydrogen and the rest
chlorine. Find its molecular formula if its relative molecular mass is 99.
3. When 3.6g of a hydrocarbon (C xHy) was burnt completely, 11g of carbon (IV)
oxide and 5.4g of water were formed. Determine the empirical formula of the
hydrocarbon.
4. 0.6g of a hydrocarbon with relative molecular mass 30 burns in excess oxygen
to form 1.76g of carbon (IV) oxide and 1.08g of water. What is its molecular
formula?

Molar Solutions
Concentration of a solution
 Concentration of a solution is the amount of solute in a given volume of
solution(not solvent)
 The amount of solute can be given in mass (grams) or in moles (number of
moles). Thus concentration may be expressed in two ways;
 mass of solute in a given volume of solution i.e. grams/litre(g/dm 3)
 moles of solute in a given volume of solution i.e. moles/litre(moles/dm 3)

11
Example
 When 4.0g of sodium hydroxide is dissolved in some water then made up to
250cm3 of solution, the concentration of the resulting solution may be given as;
 4.0g per 250cm3 of solution or
4.0
 = 0.1 moles per 250cm3 of solution (R.F.M. of sodium hydroxide is 40)
40
 The concentrations are often quoted per litre (dm 3) of solution for uniformity.
Thus the proper concentration of the solution above will be;
 16g per litre or simply 16g/dm3
 0.4 moles per litre or simply 0.4moles/dm3
NB:
 The two expressions above mean the same concentration.
 The volume of solvent (water) added to the solute to make up the given
volume of solution is not specified.

 Molarity of a solution is its concentration expressed in moles of solute per litre

of solution i.e. moles/dm3
 A molar solution is then a solution containing one mole of solute in one litre of
solution

Examples
a) If 40g of sodium hydroxide is dissolved in 200cm 3 of water then it is made up to
1000cm3 of solution, thus;
40
Number of moles of solute = =1
40
Concentration would be 1mole/dm 3 or “the molarity is one” or the solution is said
to be “one molar” written shortly as “1M NaOH”

b) Similarly 53g of sodium carbonate dissolved in enough water to make 1000cm 3

of solution, then;
53
No. of moles of solute = = 0.5
106
Concentration would be 0.5moles/dm 3 or “the molarity is 0.5” or it is “0.5 molar”
written as “0.5M Na2CO3”

 The following formulae may be used to do calculations involving volumes,

molarity, number of moles of solute and mass of solute.

i) Molarity of a solution =
g
no . of moles of solute mass of solute per litre ( )
or litre or
volume of solution∈litres
molar mass

No . of moles of solute × 1000 cm3

volume ∈cm3

ii) No. of moles of solute = or volume (dm3) × molarity

volume ∈cm3 × molarity

(moles/dm3)
1000 cm 3

12
 iii) Mass of solute per litre (g/dm3) = molarity × molar mass

Solved Problems
(Relative atomic mass: H=1, O=16, C=12, N=14, Na=23, S=32, Cl=35.5, K=39,
Cu=64, Pb=207)

1. Find the molarity of the following;

a) 7.1g of sodium sulphate in 125cm3 of solution.
b) 8g of copper (II) sulphate in 50cm3 of solution.

Solution
a) R.F.M of Na2SO4 = (23 × 2) + 32 + (16 × 4) = 142 Mass of solute per litre =
7.1
×1000
125
7.1
Moles of solute = = 0.05 =
142
56.8g/dm3

0.05 ×1000 56.8

 molarity = = 0.4moles/dm3  molarity = =
125 142
0.4moles/dm3

8
b) R.F.M. of CuSO4 = 64 + 32 + (16 × 4) = 160 Mass of solute = ×1000 =
50
160g/dm3
8
Moles of solute = = 0.05
160
0.05 ×1000 160
 molarity = = 1mole/dm3  molarity = =
50 160
1mole/dm3
2. Calculate the number of moles of solute in the following solutions;
a) 100cm3 of 2M potassium sulphate
b) 50cm3 of 0.1M sodium carbonate

Solution
100× 2
a) No. of moles = = 0.2 OR
1000

1000cm3 2 moles
100cm3 x moles
100× 2
x= = 0.2 moles
1000

50× 0.1
b) No. of moles = = 0.005 OR
1000

13
 1000cm3 0.1 moles
50cm3 x moles
50× 0.1
x= = 0.005 moles
1000

3. Calculate the mass of solute required to make the following solutions;

a) 500cm3 of 0.2M potassium sulphate
b) 1 litre of 0.4M hydrochloric acid

Solution
a) R.F.M. of K2SO4 = (39  2) + 32 + (16  4) = 174

0.2× 500
Moles of solute = = 0.1
1000

Mass of solute = 0.1  174 = 17.4g

b) R.F.M. of HCl = 1 + 35.5 = 36.5

1× 0.4
Moles of solute = = 0.4
1000

Mass of solute = 0.4  36.5 = 14.6g

4. 16.55g of lead (II) nitrate was dissolved in enough water to make 250cm 3 of
solution. Determine the concentration of this solution in;
i) Grams per litre
ii) Moles per litre

Solution
16.55× 1000
i) Mass in 1000cm3 = = 66.2
250

 Concentration = 66.2g/dm3
ii) R.F.M. of Pb(NO3)2 = 207 + (2  14) + (6  16) = 331

66.2
 Concentration = = 0.2 moles/dm3 OR
331

16.55
Moles of solute = = 0.05
331

0.05 ×1000
Molarity = = 0.2 moles/dm3
250

Questions
1. Calculate the molarity of;
a) 4.0g of sodium hydroxide in 400cm3 of solution

14
 b) 3.8g of iron (III) sulphate in 200cm3 of solution
c) 4.9g of sulphuric (VI) acid in 0.5 litres of solution

2. Calculate the number of moles of solute present in;

a) 50cm3 of 4M solution
b) 15cm3 of 2M solution
c) 27cm3 of a 0.15M solution

3. Calculate the mass of solute required to make;

a) 1dm3 of 0.25M sodium hydroxide solution
b) 250cm3 of 0.1M potassium carbonate solution
c) 25cm3 of 0.2M nitric (V) acid solution

4. What volume of 0.1M sulphuric (VI) acid contains 4.9g of solute?

5. Determine the number of moles of solute in 400cm 3 of 0.25M hydrochloric acid
solution.
Calculate the concentration of this solution in grams per litre.

Preparing molar solutions

 Aqueous solutions are prepared using volumetric flasks, measuring cylinders and
other apparatus.
 Volumetric flasks commonly used are those of 250cm 3, 500cm3 and 1000cm3 while
measuring cylinders often come in 10cm3, 50cm3 and 100cm3.
 Preparing solutions involves dissolving accurately weighed solutes in a little distilled
water in a beaker.
 Some stirring may be required until all the solid dissolves before the solution is
transferred to a volumetric flask of the desired volume.
 The beaker is rinsed and the water used is transferred into the flask too. The
solution is then made up to the mark on the narrow neck of the flask then
stoppered.

Example
To make 0.5M sodium carbonate solution using the three volumetric flasks, different
masses of the solute are accurately weighed and dissolved as follows;
a) 53g of Na2CO3 weighed and dissolved in about 200cm 3 of water in a 250ml beaker.
It is stirred until it all dissolves before being transferred to a 1000ml volumetric
flask. The beaker is rinsed and the rinsings transferred to the volumetric flask.
More distilled water is added to the flask to the mark on the neck.

Calculation
R.F.M. of Na2CO3 = (23  2) + 12 + (16  3) = 106
53
Moles of solute = = 0.5
106
 Molarity = 0.5moles/dm3

b) 26.5g of Na2CO3 weighed and dissolved in about 100cm 3 of water in a 250ml

beaker. It is stirred until it all dissolves before being transferred to a 500ml
volumetric flask. The beaker is rinsed and the rinsings transferred to the
volumetric flask. More distilled water is added to the flask to the mark on the
neck.

15
Calculation
26.5
Moles of solute = = 0.25
106

0.25 ×1000
 Molarity = = 0.5moles/dm3
500

c) The same procedure is repeated as in (a) and (b) but using a 250ml flask and
13.25g of the solid. Then;
13.25
Moles of solute = = 0.125
106

0.125 ×1000
 Molarity = = 0.5moles/dm3
250
NB: Different volumes of solutions with the same concentration may be prepared
using different masses of solute and volumetric flasks.

Dilution of a solution
 Consider what happens when 25cm3 of 2M NaOH solution is placed in a 500ml
volumetric flask and distilled water added to make 500cm 3 of a new solution.

25× 2
Moles of NaOH in original 25cm3 = = 0.05
1000

Moles of NaOH in 500cm3 of the new solution = 0.05 (no change)

0.05 ×1000 2× 25
 Molarity of the new solution = = 0.1M or = 0.1M (different)
500 500

 Dilution is a process of reducing the concentration of a solution by adding more

solvent (water) into the solution
 The number of moles of solute remains unchanged in the new solution. The original
solution is said to be concentrated while the new solution is said to be dilute.
 If M1 & V1 represent the molarity and volume of a concentrated solution respectively
while M2 & V2 represent the molarity and volume of the resulting dilute solution
respectively, then;

M 1 ×V 1 M 2 ×V 2M1V1 = M2V2
No. of moles of solute; = or
1000 1000

Examples
1. Determine the volume of 2.0M sodium hydroxide which when diluted to 250cm 3
would produce a 0.8M solution.

Solution
M1 = 2M M2 = 0.8M
V1 = ? V2 =250cm3

16
 Recall that; M1V1 = M2V2
2  V1 = 0.8  250

0.8 ×250
 V1 = = 100cm3
2

2. Calculate the maximum volume of 0.2M sodium carbonate solution that can be
made by diluting 100cm3 of a 0.3M solution. Determine the volume of water
required.

Solution
M1 = 0.3M M2 = 0.2M
V1 = 100cm3 V2 = ?
Recall that; M1V1 = M2V2

0.3  100 = 0.2  V2

0.3 ×100
 V2 = = 150cm3
0.2

Volume of water required = 150 – 100 = 50cm3

3. Calculate the volume of water that is to be added to 20cm 3 of 12.4M nitric (V) acid
solution to make a 2M solution.

Solution
M1 = 12.4M M2 = 2M
V1 = 20cm3 V2 = ?

Recall that; M1V1 = M2V2

12.4  20 = 2  V2

12.4 ×20
 V2 = = 124cm3
2

Volume of water to be added = 124 – 20 = 104cm3

4. A label on a bottle of hydrochloric acid has the following information; density –

1.134g/cm3, purity – 37%, molar mass – 36.45g.
a) Calculate the molarity of the stock solution of hydrochloric acid
b) Determine the volume of the stock solution required to make 500cm 3 of a 1M
solution.

Solution
a) Mass of HCl in 1cm3 = 1.134g

 Mass in 1000cm3 = 1.134  1000 = 1134g

1134× 37
Mass of pure HCl = = 419.58g
100

17
 419.58
Molarity of stock HCl = = 11.51moles/dm3
36.45

b) M1 = 11.51M M2 = 1M
V1 = ? V2 = 500cm3

Recall that; M1V1 = M2V2

11.51  V1 = 1  500

500× 1
 V1 = = 43.44cm3
11.51

Stoichiometry of chemical reactions

 When particles combine in a chemical reaction, they do so in specific
proportions/amounts. The reacting amounts are often expressed in moles and
the proportions are thus mole ratios.

Examples
i) The mole ratio of reactants and products in the reaction below is 2:2:2:1
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l)  2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

ii) The mole ratio of reactants and products in the reaction below is 1:2:1:2
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH  Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

iii) The mole ratio of the reactants and products in the reaction below is 2:3:2
2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g)  2FeCl3(s)

 A chemical equation in which the mole ratio of reactants and products are given
in whole numbers is called a stoichiometric equation or a normal chemical
equation.
 Writing balanced chemical equations therefore involves the knowledge of
reacting ratios of substances. The following is an outline of writing balanced
chemical equations;
i) Giving the reactants and the products
ii) Writing the correct chemical symbols and formula of the reactants and
products
iii) Balancing the equations i.e. ensuring the number of atoms of each kind on
both sides of the equation are equal
iv) Indicating the state symbols for each reactant and product.

 The mole ratio can be determined experimentally as shown below for lead (II)
iodide.

Exp: What is the equation for the reaction between lead (II) nitrate and
potassium iodide?

Apparatus and reagents: Six test tubes, burette, glass rod, 10ml measuring
cylinder, test tube rack, labels, ruler, 1.0M potassium iodide, 1.0M lead (II) nitrate
and ethanol

18
 Procedure
 Label the test tubes from 1 to 6.
 Run 5cm3 of 1.0M potassium iodide solution from a burette into each one of
them.
 Add 1.0cm3 of 1.0M lead (II) nitrate solution to the test tube labeled 1 and stir
the mixture well with a glass rod.
 Add about 5 drops of ethanol to the mixture, stir and place it in a test tube rack.
 Add 1.5cm3, 2.0cm3, 2.5cm3, 3.0cm3 and 3.5cm3 of 1.0M lead (II) nitrate to test
tube labeled 2,3,4,5 and 6 respectively.
 Add about 5 drops of ethanol to each test tube, stir and allow settling.
 Measure the height of the precipitate in each test tube in mm and record the
measurement in the table below.
 Plot a graph of the height of the precipitate against the volume of lead (II) nitrate
solution added.
Sample results
Test tube number 1 2 3 4 5 6
Volume of 1M Pb(NO3)2 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
(cm3)
Height of the precipitate 8.0 12 16 20 20 20
(mm)

THE GRAPH OF HEIGHT OF PRECIPITATE AGAINIST VOLUME OF LEAD IONS

26
24
22
20
Height (mm)

18
16
14
12
10
8

1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5

Discussion
Volume(cm3)
 When lead (II) nitrate and potassium iodide solutions react, a bright-yellow
precipitate of lead (II) iodide is formed.
 Ethanol is added to the mixture to make settling of precipitate faster (settling
can be achieved faster by warming)
 The height of the precipitate in tube 4 to 6 remained constant because lead (II)
ions were in excess and all the iodide ions had reacted.
 The stoichiometric equation can therefore be determined as follows;

1.0× 5
Moles of KI in 5.0cm3= = 0.005
1000
1.0× 2.5
Moles of Pb(NO3)2 that reacted completely = = 0.0025
1000

Thus the mole ratio of lead (II) nitrate to potassium iodide reacting is;
Pb(NO3)2 : KI = 0.0025 : 0.005 or 1 : 2

19
 The stoichiometric equation for the reaction is;
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq)  PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)

Worked Examples
1. A sample of 2.4g of magnesium burnt in 1.6g of oxygen gas to form 4.0g of
magnesium oxide. Determine the equation for the reaction from the given
information (Mg = 24, O =16)
2. A sample of 2.34g of a metal T displaces 3.2g of copper from excess aqueous
copper (II) sulphate solution (T =70.2, Cu = 64)
a) Write an equation for the reaction
b) What is the charge on an ion of T
3. In an experiment, 2.60g of zinc was mixed with excess silver nitrate solution.
8.64g of silver metal was deposited at the bottom of the beaker. Derive a
balanced equation for this reaction (Zn = 65, Ag = 108)

Questions
1. Balance the following equations;
a) FeS2(s) + O2(g)  Fe2O3(s) + SO2(g)
b) MnO2(s) + HCl(aq) → MnCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + Cl2(g)
c) C3H8(g) + O2(g)  CO2(g) + H2O(l)
d) Cu(s) + HNO3(aq)  Cu(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l) + NO(g)
e) KClO3(s) heat KCl(s) + O2(g)
MnO2
f) H2O2(aq) H2O(l) + O2(g)
g) NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g)  NaClO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

2. Write balanced chemical equations for the following reactions;

a) Hydrogen and oxygen gases reacting to form steam
b) Iron (II) oxide being reduced to iron by carbon (II) oxide gas
c) Heating lead (II) nitrate to get lead (II) oxide, nitrogen (IV) oxide gas and oxygen
gas
d) Reaction of ammonium carbonate solution and nitric (V) acid to form ammonium
nitrate, carbon (IV) oxide and water.
e) Roasting zinc sulphide in oxygen to form zinc oxide and sulphur (IV) oxide gas.
f) Nitrogen and hydrogen gases reacting to form ammonia gas
g) Heating sodium nitrate to form sodium nitrite and oxygen gas
h) Reacting marble chips and dilute hydrochloric acid

Ionic Equations
 Ionic compounds dissociate into their constituent ions when dissolved in water.
The ions move freely in solution. Solids, liquids and gases on the other hand do
not have free ions.
 Thus when a reaction takes place between aqueous solutions, only certain ions
change to form solids, liquids or gases.
 Those ions that remain free in solution during and after such reactions are called
spectator ions as they are deemed not to take part in the reaction.
 Consider a reaction between potassium iodide and lead (II) nitrate solutions.
2KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq)  2KNO3(aq) + PbI2(s)

20
  Potassium iodide solution contains potassium and iodide ions while lead (II)
nitrate contains lead (II) and nitrate ions. The free ions involved in the reaction
are shown below:
2K+(aq) + 2I-(aq) + Pb2+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq)  2K+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq) +
PbI2(s)

 Potassium and nitrate ions do not undergo any change during this reaction and
are thus the spectator ions. They are usually omitted when writing ionic
equations.
 Lead (II) and iodide ions undergo change by forming a precipitate (solid). Thus
the ionic equation for the above reaction becomes;
2I-(aq) + Pb2+(aq)  PbI2(s)

Examples of ionic equations

1. Ba(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq)  BaSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
Ionic equation: Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)  BaSO4(s)

2. CuSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq)  Cu(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)

Ionic equation: Cu2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)  Cu(OH)2(s)

3. CuSO4(aq) + Zn(s)  Cu(s) + ZnSO4(aq)

Ionic equation: Cu2+(aq) + Zn(s)  Cu(s) + Zn2+(aq)

4. 2HCl(aq) + Zn(s)  ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Ionic equation: 2H+(aq) + Zn(s)  Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)

5. NH3(g) + HNO3(aq)  NH4NO3(aq)

Ionic equation: NH3(g) + H+(aq)  NH4+(aq)

6. NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Ionic equation: OH-(aq) + H+(aq)  H2O(l)

7. CuCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq)  CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Ionic equation: CuCO3(s) + 2H+(aq)  Cu2+(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Questions
Write ionic equations for the following reactions;
a) AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq)  AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
b) ZnCl2(aq) + K2CO3(aq)  ZnCO3(s) + 2KCl(aq)
c) (NH4)2SO4(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq)  2NH4NO3(aq) + PbSO4(s)
d) 2HNO3(aq) + CuCO3(s)  Cu(NO3)2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
e) H2SO4(aq) + Zn(s)  ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
f) Na2CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq)  2NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
g) KOH(aq) + HNO3(aq)  KNO3(aq) + H2O(l)
h) 2NH3(g) + H2SO4(aq)  (NH4)2SO4(aq)
i) CuSO4(aq) + Fe(s)  Cu(s) + FeSO4(aq)

Questions on gravimetry

21
1. Calculate the mass of copper (II) oxide that will react completely with 50cm 3 of
0.7M hydrochloric acid(Cu = 64, O = 16)
2. Write an equation for the reaction between silver nitrate and sodium bromide
solutions. Given that 200cm 3 of 0.3M silver nitrate is mixed with excess sodium
bromide, what mass of the precipitate will be formed? (Ag = 108, Br = 80)
3. 20cm3 of 2M hydrochloric acid completely reacted with 25cm 3 of sodium hydroxide
solution.
a) Calculate the number of moles of hydrochloric acid present in 20cm 3 of 2M
hydrochloric acid solution.
b) Find the molarity of sodium hydroxide solution.
4. 30cm3 of 0.5M nitric (V) acid was reacted with potassium hydroxide solution
whose concentration is 28gdm-3. Calculate;
a) The concentration of potassium hydroxide in mol.dm -3
b) The volume of potassium hydroxide solution required for complete
neutralisation of the acid. (K = 39, O = 16, H = 1, N = 14)
5. An excess of 1.2M hydrochloric acid was reacted complete with 1.5g magnesium
ribbon. Calculate;
a) The number of moles present in 1.5g of magnesium ribbon. (Mg = 24)
b) The volume of the acid that was needed to completely react with 1.5g
magnesium.
c) The mass of magnesium chloride formed.
d) The volume of hydrogen gas formed at s.t.p (Molar gas volume at s.t.p. =
22.4dm3)
6. A solution of a carbonate, X2CO3 contains 5.3g in 500cm3 of solution. 25.0cm3 of
this solution required 20.0cm3 of 0.25M hydrochloric acid for complete
neutralisation. If the equation for the reaction is;
X2CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq)  2XCl(aq) + H2O(l) +CO2(g)
a) Calculate the concentration of X2CO3 solution in gdm-3
b) Find the molarity of X2CO3 solution.
c) Find the relative mass of X2CO3 hence calculate the relative atomic mass of X.
(C=12;O=16)
7. A solution of a base, ROH contains 10.75g in 250cm 3 of solution. 25cm3 of this
solution required 20cm3 of 0.48M sulphuric (VI) acid for complete neutralization.
Calculate the;
a) Concentration of ROH in moles per litre.
b) Relative formula mass of ROH.
c) R.A.M of R (O = 16, H = 1)

Volumetric analysis (Titration)

 It is a method in analytic chemistry where quantities of substances are
determined by measuring volumes of reacting solutions. This process is also
called titration.
 During the process, a solution whose concentration is known is reacted with
another whose concentration is unknown. The reacting volumes of the two
solutions are used to calculate the concentration of the solution with unknown
concentration.
 Standard solution is a solution whose concentration is known.
 End-point or equivalence point is the instance at which the reaction is
complete.

22
 Indicators are substances whose colours change in different types of
solutions. They are used to determine end-points.
 The choice of indicator to use in any titration depends on the properties of the
substances reacting as shown below;

Titration Suitable indicator for use

Strong acid + Strong base Any indicator

Strong acid + Weak base Methyl orange or screened methyl oranges
Weak acid + Strong base Phenolphthalein
 The apparatus used during titrations include: pipettes, burettes, conical flasks,
stand and clamp, measuring cylinders, measuring cylinders, volumetric flasks,
among others.
 Pipettes must be rinsed before used. They are filled by sucking in the solution
up to a few centimeters above the calibration mark. The solution is then
allowed to drain until the meniscus is at the same level as the mark. A pipette-
filler is used to suck toxic reagents.
 Burettes must be rinsed with the solution to be used. It is then carefully filled
beyond the 0.0cm3 mark before the level of the solution is adjusted to begin at
the zero cm3 mark.
 During titration process, one solution is run from the burette (titrant) into
another solution of fixed volume in a conical flask. The solution in the flask
usually contains an indicator.
 When the end-point is reached, the tap in the burette is closed and its reading
is recorded in a table as shown below.

Titration I II III
Final burette reading(cm3)
Initial burette reading(cm3)
Volume of titre used(cm3)

 The process is often repeated two more times to obtain at least two consistent
values. The volume of the titrant obtained in each trial is known as the titre.
 The titre values should be recorded in one or two decimal places. When in two
decimal places, the last digit should be zero or five. However the number of
decimal places should be uniform.
 At least two of the titre values should be consistent, if not all three, i.e. their
values should have a variance of not more than ±0.2cm 3.
 Titrations may be used to determine the following;
a) The amount of solute dissolved in a solution (to determine unknown
concentration).
b) The percentage purity of a compound or percentage composition of a
mixture.
c) Relative atomic mass (R.A.M) of an element in a compound or the relative
formula mass (R.F.M) of a compound.
d) The number of molecules of water of crystallization in a hydrated salt.
e) Reacting mole ratios in a reaction.

23
  The three main types of titrations are: direct titration, redox titration and
back titration.

Direct Titration
 Involves the reaction of standard solution with a fixed volume of analyte
(substance being analysed) or vice-versa to determine concentration, relative
atomic mass of elements in the sample or percentage composition

Example 1
In an experiment, a student was provided with the following solutions;
 Solution A which is 0.193M hydrochloric acid
 Solution B which is sodium hydroxide of unknown concentration
25cm3 of solution A were titrated with the sodium hydroxide solution and the
following results were obtained;
Titration I II III
Final burette reading(cm3) 24.2 48.2 24.1
Initial burette reading(cm3) 0.0 24.2 0.0
Volume of solution A 24.2 24.0 24.1
used(cm3)

a) If phenolphthalein indicator was used, what colour changes were seen

b) Calculate the molarity of the sodium hydroxide solution

Solution
a) Colourless to pink
24.2+ 24.0+24.1
b) Average volume of titre = = 24.1cm3
3

25× 0.193
Number of moles of HCl used = = 0.004825
1000

Equation for the reaction: NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Mole ratio HCl : NaOH = 1:1

∴moles of NaOH used = 0.004825

1000× 0.004825
Molarity of NaOH used = = 0.2002moles/dm3
24.1

NB:
The number of hydrogen ions which can be produced by one mole of an acid on
ionising is its basicity
i) Monobasic acids are those that produce one hydrogen ion per molecule e.g.
hydrochloric acid(HCl), nitric (V) acid(HNO 3), ethanoic acid(CH3COOH)
ii) Dibasic acids are those that produce two hydrogen ions per molecule e.g.
sulphuric (VI) acid(H2SO4), carbonic (IV) acid(H2CO3), ethanedioic acid(HOOC-
COOH)

24
iii) Tribasic acids are acids that produce three hydrogen ions per molecule e.g.
phosphoric (V) acid(H3PO4)

Example 2
Solution L – sulphuric (VI) acid containing 61.25g/dm 3
Solution T – metal carbonate X2CO3, containing 37g/dm3
25.0cm3 portions solution T were titrated against solution L from a burette and the
following results were recorded;

Trial I II III
Final burette reading(cm3) 20.3 40.3 20.0
Initial burette reading(cm3) 0.0 20.3 0.0
Volume of solution L 20.3 20.0 20.0
used(cm3)

a) Calculate the average volume of solution L used

b) Write the ionic equation for the reaction
c) Calculate the number of moles of X2CO3 present in one litre of solution T
d) Determine the formula mass of X2CO3
e) Calculate the relative atomic mass of X

Solution
20.0+20.0
a) Average volume of solution L used = = 20.0cm3
2

b) CO32-(aq) + 2H+(aq)  CO2(g) + H2O(l)

c) Molar mass of H2SO4, solution L = (1× 2) + 32 + (4 × 16) = 98

61.25
Molarity of solution L = = 0.625moles/dm3
98

0.625 ×20
Moles of H2SO4 used = = 0.0125
1000

Mole ratio of X2CO3 : H2SO4 = 1:1

∴ moles of X2CO3 reacted = 0.0125

0.0125 ×1000
Molarity of X2CO3 = = 0.5moles/dm3
25

37
d) Molar mass of X2CO3 = = 74g
0.5

e) 2X + 12 + (16 × 3) = 74
2X = 74 – 60 = 14
X=7

25
Back Titration
 Back titration involves reacting a given amount of analyte (substance being
analysed) with an excess of a standard solution. The excess standard solution is
then titrated against another standard solution.
 The amount of reagent that reacts with the analyte is determined by subtracting
the moles of the excess from its initial amount.
 Back titrations are useful in determining the concentration/amount of substances
in a sample.

Example1
0.5g 0f a metal carbonate, YCO3, was reacted with 30.0cm3 of 0.5M hydrochloric
acid in a conical flask. Two drops of phenolphthalein indicator were added to the
resulting solution. The solution was then titrated against a 1.0M sodium hydroxide
solution until the colour of the solution just turned pink. The experiment was
repeated two more times and the following results were obtained;

Titration I II III
Final burette reading (cm3) 5.1 10.1 15.0
Initial burette reading (cm3) 0.0 5.1 10.1
Volume of solution NaOH used 5.1 5.0 4.9
(cm3)

a) Calculate the average volume of titre used

b) Calculate;
i) Moles of sodium hydroxide used
ii) Volume of hydrochloric neutralized by the base
iii) Volume of hydrochloric acid that reacted with the carbonate YCO 3
iv) Moles of hydrochloric acid that reacted with the carbonate, YCO 3
c) Write the equation or the reaction between the carbonate YCO 3, and the acid
d) Find the;
i) Moles of YCO3 that reacted with hydrochloric acid
ii) Relative formula mass of YCO3
iii) Relative atomic mass of Y ( C = 12, O = 16)

Solution
5.1+ 5.0+4.9
a) Average volume of titre = = 5.0cm3
3
b) Calculating:
5× 1
i) Moles of NaOH used = = 0.005
1000

ii) Equation of reaction: HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Mole ratio of HCl : NaOH = 1:1
∴ Moles of HCl used = 0.005
0.005 ×1000
Thus volume of HCl neutralised = = 10.0cm3
0.5

iii) Volume of HCl that reacted with YCO3 = 30.0 – 10.0 = 20.0cm3

26
 20× 0.5
iv) Moles of HCl that reacted with YCO3 = = 0.01
1000

c) Equation of reaction: YCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq)  YCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

d) Finding:
i) Mole ratio of YCO3 : HCl = 1:2
1
Moles of YCO3 = × 0.01 = 0.005
2

0.5
ii) R.F.M. of YCO3 = = 100
0.005

iii) R.A.M. of Y;
100 = Y + 12 + (16 × 3)
Y = 100 – 60
= 40

Example 2
Solution A1 – Hydrochloric acid containing 5.256g per litre of solution
Solution A2 – 0.24M sodium hydroxide solution
Solid V – 0.2g 0f impure carbonate sample
100cm3 of solution A1 was transferred into a beaker. All of solid V was added into
the beaker, then the contents were swirled and the reaction proceeded for about
five minutes. The resultant solution was titrated against solution R. 25.0cm 3
portions of solution R were titrated against solution A 2 from a burette. The results
obtained were recorded in the table below;

Titration I II III
Final burette reading (cm3) 12.8 25.4 37.8
Initial burette reading (cm3) 0.0 12.8 25.4
Volume of solution NaOH used 12.8 12.6 12.4
(cm3)

a) Calculate the average volume of titre(solution A used)

b) Calculate:
i) Moles of hydrochloric acid in 25.0cm 3 of solution R
ii) Moles of hydrochloric acid in 100cm 3 of solution R
iii) Moles of hydrochloric acid in 100cm 3 of the original hydrochloric acid solution
A1
iv) Moles of hydrochloric acid that reacted with the carbonate
v) Moles of the carbonate that reacted with hydrochloric acid
c) If the relative formula mass of the carbonate is 138, calculate;
i) The mass of the carbonate that reacted
ii) The percentage purity of the carbonate

Solution

27
 12.8+12.6 12.6+12.4
a) Average volume of titre = = 12.7cm3 or = 12.5cm3
2 2
b) Calculating:
12.5× 0.24
i) Moles of NaOH used = = 0.003
1000

Mole ratio of NaOH : HCl = 1:1

Moles HCl in 25cm3 of solution R = 0.003

100× 0.003
ii) Moles of HCl in 100cm3 of solution R = = 0.012
25

5.256 g/l
iii) Molarity of HCl = = 0.144mole/dm3
36.5 g /mole

100× 0.144
Moles of HCl used = =¿0.0144
1000

iv) Moles of HCl reacting with carbonate = 0.0144 – 0.012 = 0.0024

v) Equation of reaction: CO32-(aq) + 2H+(aq)  CO2(aq) + H2O(l)

Mole ratio of CO32- : H+ = 1:2

1
Moles of carbonate = × 0.0024 = 0.0012
2

c) Calculating:
i) Mass of carbonate that reacted = 0.0012 × 138 = 0.1656g

0.1656 ×100
ii) Percentage purity of carbonate = = 82.8%
0.2

Redox Titration
 Redox reactions are those where reduction and oxidation take place
simultaneously. One of the reagents(reducing agent) undergoes oxidation while
the other(oxidising agent) undergoes reduction
 The colour of the reaction mixture change as the oxidation state of the reagents
change. Thus redox titrations do not require indicators.
 The most commonly used oxidising agents are acidified potassium manganate
(VII) and potassium dichromate (VI). Iron (II) salts are the most common reducing
agents.
 Purple acidified potassium manganate (VII) turns colourless during end-points as
manganate (VII) ions change to manganese (II) ions;
MnO42-(aq) + 5Fe2+(aq) + 8H+(aq)  Mn2+(aq) + 5Fe3+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
(purple) (colourless)

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 Orange acidified potassium dichromate (VI) turns green at end-points as
dichromate (VI) ions change to chromium (III) ions;
Cr2O72-(aq) + 6Fe2+(aq) + 14H+(aq)  2Cr3+(aq) + 6Fe3+(aq) + 7H2O(aq)
(orange) (green)

Example
Given:
Solution D – Hydrated ammonium iron (II) sulphate containing 14.7g
(NH4)2SO4.FeSO4.nH2O, in 250cm3 solution
Solution E – Acidified potassium manganate (VII) solution containing 4.74g KMnO 4
per litre of solution
25.0cm3 portions of solution D were titrated with solution E from the burette. The
following results were obtained;
Trial I II III
Final burette reading(cm3) 25.4 25.1 24.9
Initial burette reading(cm3) 0.0 0.0 0.0
3
Volume of solution E used (cm ) 25.3 25.1 24.9

a) Determine the average volume of titre used

b) Calculate the molarity of potassium manganate (VII) solution E (K=39, Mn=55,
O=16)
c) Determine the number of moles of KMnO4 in the average titre
d) Given that the ionic equation for the reaction is:
MnO42-(aq) + 5Fe2+(aq) + 8H+(aq)  Mn2+(aq) + 5Fe3+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
Calculate the number of moles of Fe2+ in 25cm3 of solution D
e) Determine the concentration of solution D in moles per litre
f) Calculate the relative formula mass of (NH 4)2SO4.FeSO4.nH2O
g) Determine the value of n, the number of moles of water of crystallisation (Fe =
56, N = 14, S = 32, O = 16, H = 1)

Solution
25.1+ 24.9 25.1+ 25.3
a) Average volume of titre = = 25.0cm3 or = 25.2cm3
2 2

b) R.F.M. of KMnO4 = 39 + 55 + (16 × 4) = 158

4.74
Concentration of KMnO4 solution E = = 0.03moles/dm3
158
0.03 ×25.0
c) Moles of KMnO4 = = 0.00075
1000
d) Mole ratio MnO4- : Fe2+ = 1:5
Moles of Fe2+ = 5 × 0.00075 = 0.00375

0.00375 ×1000
e) Concentration of solution D = = 0.15moles/dm3
25

14.7 ×1000
f) Mass per litre of (NH4)2SO4.FeSO4.nH2O = = 58.8g
250

29
 58.8
R.F.M. of (NH4)2SO4.FeSO4.nH2O = = 392
0.15

g) Molar mass of (NH4)2SO4.FeSO4.nH2O = 392

i.e. (2 × 14) + (1× 8) + 32 + (4 × 16) + 56 + 32 + (4 × 16) + 18n = 392
18n = 392 – 284
18n = 108
 n=6

Atomicity of gases
 Atomicity is the number of atoms in a molecule of an elementary gas. The table
below shows the atomicity of some selected gases;

Gas Chemical Atomicity

symbol/formula
Helium He 1
Argon Ar 1
Neon Ne 1
Nitrogen N2 2
Hydrogen H2 2
Oxygen O2 2
Chlorine Cl2 2
Ozone O3 3

Avogadro’s Principle and Molar gas volume

 The volume of a gas depends on temperature and pressure. It has been
established by experiments that equal volumes of all gases under the same
conditions of temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules.
 It is stated by Avogadro’s Principle that;

Equal volumes of gases contain equal number of

molecules
 The volume occupied by one mole of any gas is called molar gas volume.
 At s.t.p. (1atm, 0oC), the molar gas volume is equal to 22.4dm 3 (or litres) while at
r.t.p. (1atm,25oC) is 24dm3(or litres)
Examples
1. 1.58dm3 of a gas at s.t.p. has a mass of 5g. Calculate its relative molecular mass
(molar gas volume at s.t.p. = 22.4dm 3) 71g
2. Calculate the mass of 120cm3 of nitrogen gas at r.t.p. (molar gas volume at r.t.p.
= 24.0dm3) 0.14g
3. Find out the volume occupied by 0.2g of sulphur (IV) oxide gas at s.t.p. (S =32, O
= 16) 0.07dm3/70cm3
4. Calculate the volume of carbon (IV) oxide gas measured at s.t.p. which is
evolved when 4.2g magnesium carbonate is heated to a constant mass. (Mg
=24, C =12, O =16) 1.12dm3/1120cm3
5. How many molecules are there in 560cm3 of ammonia gas at s.t.p.?(L = 6.0 ×
1023) 1.5 × 1022

30
Gay-Lussac’s law and combining volumes of gases
 Studies on gases show that they react in volumes that show whole number ratios
and also to their products, if gaseous.
 This observation is concluded by Gay-Lussac’s law which states that:

When gases react they do so in volumes that bear a simple

ratio to one another and to the volumes of the product if
gaseous, temperature and pressure remaining constant

 This means that volume ratios can be used interchangeably with mole ratios
where gases react at constant temperature and pressure.

Examples
1. 20cm3 of carbon (II) oxide was reacted with 10cm 3 of oxygen. What was the
volume of the product formed?

Solution
Equation: 2CO(g) + O2(g)  2CO2(g)
Mole/volume ratio: 2 1 2
Reacting volumes: 20cm3 10cm3 20cm3
The volume of product = 20cm3

2. When 100cm3 of a gaseous hydrocarbon (CxHy) burns in 400 cm3 of oxygen,

100cm3 of oxygen is unused, 200cm3 of carbon (IV) oxide and 200cm3 of steam
are formed. Determine the equation for the reaction and the formula of the
hydrocarbon.

Solution
The general equation is as follows;
CxHy(g) + O2(g)  CO2(g) + H2O(g)
Volume reacted: 100cm3 300cm3 200cm3 200cm3
Volume ratio: 1 : 3 : 2 : 2
Mole ratio: 1 : 3 : 2 : 2
The general equation becomes: CxHy(g) + 3O2(g)  2CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
From the equation: x = 2 and y = 4
The required equation is given as: C 2H4(g) + 3O2(g)  2CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
The formula of the hydrocarbon is: C2H4
3. 150cm3 of nitrogen gas was reacted with 330cm 3 of hydrogen. Assuming the
reaction went to completion and that all the volumes were measured at the
same temperature and pressure;
a) Give a balanced equation for the reaction [N 2(g) + 3H2(g)  2NH3(g)]
b) Calculate the volume of ammonia formed [220cm 3]
c) Find the total volume of the gaseous mixture at the end of the reaction [40N 2
+ 220NH3 = 260cm3]

Questions
1. An electric spark was passed through a mixture of 15cm 3 of ethene (C2H4) and
45cm3 of oxygen. What would be the total volume of the mixture at the end of

31
 the reaction? (All volumes are measured at the same temperature and
pressure).
2. 100cm3 of methane (CH4) was completely burnt in 150cm3 of oxygen. 100cm3 of
carbon (II) oxide and 200cm3 of steam were formed. Using this information, write
a balanced equation for the reaction.
3. Calculate the volume of oxygen required for the complete combustion of 100cm 3
carbon (II) oxide. What is the volume of the carbon (IV) oxide formed? (All
volumes are taken at the same temperature and pressure)
4. Ammonia gas reacts with oxygen gas according to the equation below;
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g)  4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)
In an experiment, 274cm3 of ammonia gas were reacted with excess air.
Assuming the volumes are measured at the same temperature and pressure,
calculate;
a) The volume of steam formed.
b) The volume of oxygen used.
c) The volume of air required, assuming that oxygen forms 20% of air.

32