Chapter 8:

State Space Analysis

8.1. Definition of state -space
8.2. State space representation of electrical and mechanical system
8.3. Conversion from state space to transfer function
8.4. Conversion from transfer function to state space
8.5. State-transition matrix
 Chapter 8:
State Space Analysis
8.1. Definition of state -space
8.2. State space representation of electrical and mechanical system
8.3. Conversion from state space to transfer function
8.4. Conversion from transfer function to state space
8.5. State-transition matrix
8.1) Definition of state space analysis
a) State space analysis: It is done to determine the behaviour of the system for any
time 𝑡 > 𝑡𝑜 , for given state variable at 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑜 & knowledge of input for 𝑡 ≥ 𝑡𝑜 .

b) State variable: Minimum set of variables to describe state of system.

Note: Voltage across capacitors & current through inductor is taken as state
variables.

c) State vector: It is the representation of state variables as the component of the

vector.

d) State equation
where,
𝑋ሶ = 𝐴𝑋 + 𝐵𝑈 𝑋ሶ = derivative of state variable vector
𝑋 = state vector
& 𝑈 = input vector
𝑌 = 𝐶𝑋 + 𝐷𝑈 𝑌 = output vector
𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 = transition matrix
 Chapter 8:
State Space Analysis
8.1. Definition of state -space
8.2. State space representation of electrical and mechanical system
8.3. Conversion from state space to transfer function
8.4. Conversion from transfer function to state space
8.5. State-transition matrix
a) State space representation of electrical system So the required equations are:
{Note: While writing state equation, use KCL at node which contain
𝑑𝑖 𝑅 1 1
capacitor & KVL in loop containing inductor} =− 𝑖− 𝑉𝑐 + 𝐸
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
Let, 𝑖𝐿 =Current through inductor & 𝑉𝑐 = Voltage across capacitor 𝑑𝑉𝑐 1
= 𝑖
We have, State variables = 𝑖𝐿 & 𝑉𝑐 ; 𝑑𝑡 𝐶
Input (𝑈) = 𝐸 and Output(𝑌) = 𝑉𝑐 𝑌 = 𝑉𝑐

Apply KVL, In matrix form,

𝑑𝑖 𝑋ሶ = 𝐴𝑋 + 𝐵𝑈
𝐸 = 𝑖𝑅 + 𝐿 + 𝑉𝑐
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑖 𝑅 1
− − 1
𝑑𝑖 𝑅 1 1 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿 𝐿 𝑖
=− 𝑖− 𝑉 + 𝐸 + 𝐿 𝐸
𝑑𝑉𝑐 1 𝑉𝑐
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝐿 𝑐 𝐿 0 0
& 𝑑𝑡 𝐶
𝑑𝑉𝑐 &
𝑖=𝐶 𝑌 = 𝐶𝑋 + 𝐷𝑈
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉𝑐 1 𝑖
𝑌= 0 1 + 0 𝑈
= 𝑖 𝑉𝑐
𝑑𝑡 𝐶
b) State space representation of mechanical system So, required equations are:
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑥1ሶ = 𝑥2
𝐹 =𝑀 2 +𝐵 + 𝑘𝑦
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
ሶ𝐵 𝑘 1
𝑑 2 𝑦 𝐵 𝑑𝑦 𝑘 𝐹 𝑥2ሶ = − 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑈
𝑜𝑟,
𝑑𝑡 2
+ +
𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚
𝑦 =
𝑚
… … … . (𝑖) 𝑚 2 𝑚 1 𝑚
𝑑𝑦 𝑌 = 𝑥1
The two State variables are 𝑦 & .
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦
𝐿𝑒𝑡, 𝑥1 = 𝑦 & 𝑥2 = 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑥2 = 𝑥1ሶ The state equation is written as:
𝑑𝑡
𝑥1ሶ 0 1 𝑥1 0
The input is 𝐹 & output is 𝑦. 𝑘 𝐵 1 𝑈
𝑥2ሶ = 𝑥2 +
𝑈 = 𝐹 & 𝑌 = 𝑦 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑌 = 𝑥1
− −
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
From (𝑖)
𝑑2 𝑦 𝐵 𝑑𝑦 𝑘 𝐹 The output equation is:
= − − 𝑦 + 𝑥1
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑚 𝑌= 1 0 𝑥 + 0𝑈
2
ሶ𝐵 𝑘 1
𝑜𝑟, 𝑥2ሶ = − 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑈
𝑚 2 𝑚 1 𝑚
 Chapter 8:
State Space Analysis
8.1. Definition of state -space
8.2. State space representation of electrical and mechanical system
8.3. Conversion from state space to transfer function
8.4. Conversion from transfer function to state space
8.5. State-transition matrix
8.3) Conversion from state space to transfer function( Derivation )
We have,
𝑋ሶ = 𝐴𝑋 + 𝐵𝑈
𝑌 = 𝐶𝑋 + 𝐷𝑈
Laplace Transform on both sides,
𝑠𝑋 𝑠 = 𝐴 𝑋 𝑠 + 𝐵 𝑈(𝑠)
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 𝑋 𝑠 = 𝐵 𝑈(𝑠)
𝑋 𝑠 = 𝐵 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1 𝑈(𝑠)

𝑌 𝑠 = 𝐶 𝑋 𝑠 + 𝐷 𝑈(𝑠)
= 𝐶 𝑇 𝐵 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1 𝑈(𝑠) + 𝐷 𝑈(𝑠)
𝑌 𝑠
= 𝐶 𝑇 𝐵 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1 +𝐷
𝑈(𝑠)
𝒀 𝒔
∴ 𝑻. 𝑭 = 𝑮 𝒔 = = 𝑪𝑻 𝑩 𝒔𝑰 − 𝑨 −𝟏 +𝑫
𝑼(𝒔)
where,
−1
𝐴𝑑𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜 − 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 [𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴]
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = =
|𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴| |𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴|
Q) Find T.F of the following system. The co-factor matrix of [𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴] be:

𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13

𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 Note: 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = omit 𝑖 𝑡ℎ row & 𝑗𝑡ℎ column from [𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴]
𝑿ሶ 𝒕 = −𝟏 −𝟏 𝟎 𝑿+ 𝟏 𝑼 & 𝒀= 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝑿 𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
So,
Solution,

We know, 𝑠+1 0
𝑎11 = =𝑠 𝑠+1
0 𝑠
𝑋ሶ 𝑡 = 𝐴 𝑋 𝑡 + 𝐵 𝑈 𝑡  State equation
1 0
𝑎12 = − = −𝑠
𝑌 𝑡 = 𝐶 𝑋 𝑡 + 𝐷 𝑈(𝑡)  Output equation −1 𝑠

Comparing, 1 𝑠+1
𝑎13 = = (𝑠 + 1)
−1 0
0 1 0 0
𝐴 = −1 −1 0 ,𝐵 = 1 ,𝐶 = 0 0 1 , 𝐷 = [0] −1 0
𝑎21 = = −𝑠
1 𝑠
1 0 0 0
Now, 𝑠 0
𝑎22 = = 𝑠2
−1 𝑠
1 0 0 0 1 0 𝑠 −1 0 𝑠 −1
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 𝑠 0 1 0 − −1 −1 0 = 1 𝑠 + 1 0 𝑎23 = =1
−1 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 −1 0 𝑠
Similarly, 𝑎31 = 0 , 𝑎32 = 0 , & 𝑎33 = 𝑠 2 + 𝑠 + 1
𝑠+1 0 1 0
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 𝑠 − −1 +0
0 𝑠 −1 𝑠
𝑠(𝑠 + 1) −𝑠 𝑠+1
2
=s 𝑠+1 +𝑠 ∴ Matrix of co − factors = 𝑠 𝑠2 1
2
0 0 𝑠 +𝑠+1
= 𝑠3 + 𝑠2 + 𝑠
∴ Adjoint of 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = Transponse of matrix of co − factors
𝑠(𝑠 + 1) 𝑠 0
= −𝑠 𝑠2 0
𝑠+1 1 𝑠2 + 𝑠 + 1

Adjoint of 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 1 𝑠 𝑠+1 𝑠 0
−1
∴ 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = = 3 −𝑠 𝑠2 0
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 𝑠 + 𝑠2 + 𝑠
𝑠+1 1 𝑠2 + 𝑠 + 1
∴ 𝑇. 𝐹 = 𝐶 𝑇 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1 𝐵+𝐷

1 𝑠 𝑠+1 𝑠 0 0
= 0 0 1 ∗ 3 −𝑠 𝑠2 0 ∗ 1 +0
𝑠 + 𝑠2 + 𝑠
𝑠+1 1 𝑠2 + 𝑠 + 1 0

1 𝑠
2
= 0 0 1 ∗ 3 ∗ 𝑠
𝑠 + 𝑠2 + 𝑠 1
1
=
𝑠(𝑠 2 + 𝑠 + 1)
 Chapter 8:
State Space Analysis
8.1. Definition of state -space
8.2. State space representation of electrical and mechanical system
8.3. Conversion from state space to transfer function
8.4. Conversion from transfer function to state space
8.4.1) T.F containing poles only
8.4.2) T.F containing both poles and zeros
8.5. State-transition matrix
 8.4.1) T.F containing poles only

𝒀 𝒔 𝟐
𝐐) 𝐅𝐨𝐫 𝐓. 𝐅 = = 𝟑 𝟐
.
𝑼 𝒔 𝒔 + 𝟔𝒔 + 𝟏𝟏𝒔 + 𝟔

𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐝 𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐜𝐡𝐞𝐜𝐤 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐨𝐥𝐥𝐚𝐛𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐨𝐛𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐛𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐲.

Hint:
𝑌 𝑠
𝑇. 𝐹 =
𝑈 𝑠
1. Cross multiply
2. Take inverse Laplace Transform
3. Replace with state variables
For example
for system order = 3 define state variables i.e 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 & 𝑥3 as follows:
Let,
𝑦 = 𝑥1
𝑦ሶ = 𝑥1ሶ = 𝑥2
𝑦ሷ = 𝑥ሷ1 = 𝑥2ሶ = 𝑥3
𝑦ഺ = 𝑥ഺ1 = 𝑥2ሷ = 𝑥3ሶ
4. Get state equation & output equation
8.4.1) T.F containing poles only From (i) we have,
𝑥3ሶ = 2𝑢 𝑡 − 6𝑥1 − 11𝑥2 − 6𝑥3
𝒀 𝒔 𝟐
𝐐) 𝐅𝐨𝐫 𝐓. 𝐅 = = 𝟑 . Therefore the state equations are : [ Note: 𝑋ሶ = 𝐴𝑋 + 𝐵𝑈]
𝑼 𝒔 𝒔 + 𝟔𝒔𝟐 + 𝟏𝟏𝒔 + 𝟔
𝑥ሶ 1 = 𝑥2 = 0𝑥1 + 1𝑥2 + 0𝑥3 + 0 𝑢(𝑡)
𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐝 𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐜𝐡𝐞𝐜𝐤 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐨𝐥𝐥𝐚𝐛𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐨𝐛𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐚𝐛𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐲.
𝑥ሶ 2 = 𝑥3 = 0𝑥1 + 0𝑥2 + 1𝑥3 + 0 𝑢(𝑡)
Solution, 𝑥3ሶ = −6𝑥1 − 11𝑥2 − 6𝑥3 + 2𝑢 𝑡

We have, &
𝑌 𝑠 2 The output equation is: [Note: 𝑌 = 𝐶𝑋 + 𝐷𝑈 ]
= 3
𝑈 𝑠 𝑠 + 6𝑠 2 + 11𝑠 + 6 𝑦 = 𝑥1 = 𝑥1 + 0𝑥2 + 0𝑥3 + 0 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑜𝑟, 𝑠 3 𝑌 𝑠 + 6 𝑠 2 𝑌 𝑠 + 11 𝑠 𝑌 𝑠 + 6 𝑌 𝑠 = 2 𝑈(𝑠)
The state space model becomes:
Taking inverse L.T 𝑋ሶ = 𝐴𝑋 + 𝐵𝑈
𝑦ഺ 𝑡 + 6𝑦ሷ 𝑡 + 11𝑦ሶ 𝑡 + 6𝑦 𝑡 = 2𝑢(𝑡)
𝑥ሶ 1 0 1 0 𝑥1 0
𝑦ഺ 𝑡 = 2𝑢 𝑡 − 6𝑦 𝑡 − 11𝑦ሶ 𝑡 − 6𝑦ሷ 𝑡 … … … … … (𝑖) 𝑥ሶ 2 = 0 0 1 𝑥2 + 0 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑥3ሶ 𝑥
−6 −11 −6 3 2
Let, 𝑦 = 𝑥1
𝑦ሶ = 𝑥1ሶ = 𝑥2 &
𝑦ሷ = 𝑥ሷ 1 = 𝑥2ሶ = 𝑥3 𝑌 = 𝐶𝑋 + 𝐷𝑈 ]
Since the order of equation is three, so there are 3 state variables
𝑥1
𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 .
= 1 0 0 𝑥2 + 0 𝑢(𝑡) ]
𝑦ഺ = 𝑥ഺ1 = 𝑥2ሷ = 𝑥3ሶ 𝑥3
Which is the required state space representation of T.F.
Controllability
• A control system is said to be controllable if the initial states of the
control system are transferred to some other desired states by a
controlled input in finite duration of time.
• We can check the controllability of a control system by using Kalman’s
test.
1. Write the matrix (𝑄) in the following form.
𝑄 = 𝐵 ∶ 𝐴𝐵 ∶ 𝐴2 𝐵 … … . 𝐴𝑛−1 𝐵
2. Find the determinant of matrix and if it is not equal to zero, then the control
system is controllable.
Observability
• A control system is said to be observable if it is able to determine the initial
states of the control system by observing the outputs in finite duration of
time.
• We can check the observability of a control system by using Kalman’s test.
1. Write the matrix in following form.
𝑄′ = 𝐶 𝑇 ∶ 𝐴𝑇 𝐶 𝑇 ∶ 𝐴𝑇 2 𝐶 𝑇 … … … . 𝐴𝑇 𝑛−1 𝐶 𝑇
2. Find the determinant of matrix and if it is not equal to zero, then the control
system is observable.
Controllability & Observability
For controllability,
𝑄 = 𝐵 ∶ 𝐴𝐵 ∶ 𝐴2 𝐵 is equal to rank n
𝟎 0 1 0 0 𝟎 0 0 1 0 𝟐
2
𝑩= 𝟎 ; 𝐴𝐵 = 0 0 1 0 = 𝟐 ; 𝐴 𝐵 = −6 −11 −6 0 = −𝟏𝟐
𝟐 −6 −11 −6 2 −𝟏𝟐 36 60 25 2 𝟓𝟎
0 0 2
∴ 𝑄= 0 2 −12
2 −12 50
∴ Since no any row or column is zero, hence the rank of Q is 3. So, system is controllable.

Similarly,

For observability,
𝑄 ′ = 𝐶 𝑇 ∶ 𝐴𝑇 𝐶 𝑇 ∶ 𝐴𝑇 2 𝐶 𝑇 is equal to rank n
1 0 0 −6 1 0 0
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 2 𝑇
𝐶 = 0 ; 𝐴 𝐶 = 1 0 −11 0 = 1 ; 𝐴 𝐶 = 0
0 0 1 −6 0 0 1
1 0 0
′
∴𝑄= 0 1 0
0 0 1
∴ Rank of 𝑄 ′ = 3, system is observable.
 Chapter 8:
State Space Analysis
8.1. Definition of state -space
8.2. State space representation of electrical and mechanical system
8.3. Conversion from state space to transfer function
8.4. Conversion from transfer function to state space
8.4.1) T.F containing poles only
8.4.2) T.F containing both poles and zeros
8.5. State-transition matrix
8.4.2) T.F containing both poles and zeros

𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝒔 + 𝟏
𝐐) 𝐀 𝐬𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦 𝐡𝐚𝐬 𝐓. 𝐅 𝑮 𝒔 = 𝟑 𝟐
.
𝒔 + 𝟑𝒔 + 𝟐𝒔 + 𝟏
𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐞 & 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐢𝐧 𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐱 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦.
Hint: 𝑮 𝒔 =
𝒀 𝒔
=
𝑿𝟏 𝒔
∗
𝒀 𝒔
𝑼(𝒔) 𝑼(𝒔) 𝑿𝟏 𝒔
𝑿𝟏 𝒔 𝒀 𝒔
= 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎 = 𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎
𝑼(𝒔) 𝑿𝟏 𝒔

1. Cross multiply 1. Cross multiply

2. Take inverse Laplace Transform 2. Take inverse Laplace Transform
3. Replace with state variables 3. Replace with state variables
For example 4. Get output equation
for system order = 3 define state variables i.e
𝑧1 , 𝑧2 & 𝑧3 as follows:
Let,
𝑥1 𝑡 = 𝑧1
𝑥1ሶ 𝑡 = 𝑧1ሶ = 𝑧2
𝑥1ሷ 𝑡 = 𝑧1ሷ = 𝑧2ሶ = 𝑧3
𝑥ഺ1 𝑡 = 𝑧ഺ1 = 𝑧1ሷ = 𝑧3ሶ
4. Get state equation
8.4.2) T.F containing both poles and zeros The state equations in form 𝑍ሶ = 𝐴𝑍 + 𝐵𝑈
𝟐𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝒔 + 𝟏 𝑧1ሶ = 𝑧2 = 0𝑧1 + 1𝑧2 + 𝑧3 + 0𝑢(𝑡)
𝐐) 𝐀 𝐬𝐲𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐦 𝐡𝐚𝐬 𝐓. 𝐅 𝑮 𝒔 = .
𝒔𝟑
+ 𝟑𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐𝒔 + 𝟏 𝑧2ሶ = 𝑧3 = 0𝑧1 + 0𝑧2 + 1𝑧3 + 0𝑢(𝑡)
𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐝 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐞 & 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐢𝐧 𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐱 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐦. 𝑧3ሶ = −𝑧1 − 2𝑧2 − 3𝑧3 + 20 𝑢 𝑡
Solution, &
𝑌 𝑠 20 The output equation in form 𝑌 = 𝐶𝑍 + 𝐷𝑈
𝐺 𝑠 = = 3 ∗ (10𝑠 + 1)
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑠 + 3𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 1
From (ii)
𝑌 𝑠 𝑋1 𝑠 𝑌 𝑠
= ∗ 𝑌 𝑠 = 10𝑠𝑋1 𝑠 + 𝑋1 (𝑠)
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑈(𝑠) 𝑋1 𝑠
Taking inverse L.T
So,
𝑦 𝑡 = 10𝑥1ሶ 𝑡 + 𝑥1 𝑡 = 10𝑧2 + 𝑧1
𝑋1 𝑠 20 𝑦 𝑡 = 1𝑧1 + 10𝑧2 + 0𝑧3 + 0 𝑢(𝑡)
= 3 2
… … … … … . (𝑖)
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 2𝑠 + 1
𝑌 𝑠 ∴ The state matrix is as follows:
= 10𝑠 + 1 … … … … . (𝑖𝑖)
𝑋1 𝑠 𝑧1ሶ 0 1 0 𝑧1 0
𝑧2ሶ = 0 0 1 𝑧2 + 0 𝑢(𝑡)
From (𝑖) 𝑧
𝑧3ሶ −1 −2 −3 3 20
𝑠 3 𝑋1 𝑠 + 3𝑠 2 𝑋1 𝑠 + 2𝑠𝑋1 𝑠 + 𝑋1 𝑠 = 20 𝑈(𝑠)
which is in the form 𝑍ሶ = 𝐴𝑍 + 𝐵𝑈.
Inverse L.T
𝑥ഺ1 𝑡 + 3𝑥1ሷ 𝑡 + 2𝑥1ሶ 𝑡 + 𝑥1 𝑡 = 20 𝑢(𝑡) &
𝑥ഺ1 𝑡 = 20 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑥1 𝑡 − 2𝑥1ሶ 𝑡 − 3𝑥1ሷ 𝑡 𝑧1
𝑌= 1 10 𝑧
0 2
Let, 𝑥1 𝑡 = 𝑧1 𝑧3
𝑥1ሶ 𝑡 = 𝑧1ሶ = 𝑧2
which is in the form 𝑌 = 𝐶𝑍 + 𝐷𝑈.
𝑥1ሷ 𝑡 = 𝑧1ሷ = 𝑧2ሶ = 𝑧3
𝑥ഺ1 𝑡 = 20 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑧1 − 2𝑧2 − 3𝑧3
𝑥ഺ1 𝑡 = 𝑧ഺ1 = 𝑧1ሷ = 𝑧3ሶ
 Chapter 8:
State Space Analysis
8.1. Definition of state -space
8.2. State space representation of electrical and mechanical system
8.3. Conversion from state space to transfer function
8.4. Conversion from transfer function to state space
8.5. State-transition matrix
State-transition matrix (𝑆. 𝑇. 𝑀)
• The state of any system for 𝑢 𝑡 = 0 (i.e no force in input) is
determined by matrix called S.T.M.
• 𝝓 𝒕 = 𝐿−1 { 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1
}
= 𝒆𝑨𝒕
= 𝑺. 𝑻. 𝑴
Proof: 𝝓 𝒕 = 𝒆𝑨𝒕 = 𝑺. 𝑻. 𝑴 Let,
We know, 𝜙 𝑠 = 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1
𝑋ሶ 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑋 𝑡 + 𝐵𝑈(𝑡) = Resolvent matrix

If 𝑈 𝑡 = 0, Taking inverse L.T,

𝑋ሶ 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑋 𝑡 𝜙 𝑡 = 𝐿−1 𝜙 𝑠
= 𝐿−1 { 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1
}
Taking L.T.
𝑠𝑋 𝑠 − 𝑋 0 = 𝐴𝑋(𝑠) Then,
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 𝑋 𝑠 = 𝑋(0) 𝝓 𝒕 = 𝒆𝑨𝒕 = 𝑺. 𝑻. 𝑴
𝑋 𝑠 = 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1 𝑋(0)
Q) Evaluate the state transition matrix of system represented by:
𝒙ሶ 𝟏 = −𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐
𝒙ሶ 𝟐 = −𝟐𝒙𝟐
Hint
1) Write state space model

2) Find 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1

−1
𝐴𝑑𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 =
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴
where,
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴
𝒔+𝟏 −𝟏 𝒔+𝟐 𝟏
𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒆: 𝑰𝒇 𝒔𝑰 − 𝑨 = 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒂𝒅𝒋𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝑰 − 𝑨 =
𝟎 𝒔+𝟐 𝟎 𝒔+𝟏

3) State transition matrix (STM) = 𝐿−1 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1 = 𝑒 𝐴𝑇

Q) Evaluate the state transition matrix of system 𝐴𝑑𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴
represented by: 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1
=
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴
𝒙ሶ 𝟏 = −𝒙𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐
1
𝑠+2 1
=
𝒙ሶ 𝟐 = −𝟐𝒙𝟐 𝑠+1 𝑠+2 0 𝑠+1

Solution,
1 1
The state space model is: 𝑠+1 𝑠+1 𝑠+2
=
1
0
𝑠+2
𝑥ሶ 1 −1 1 𝑥1
=
𝑥ሶ 2 0 −2 𝑥2 State transition matrix (STM)

= 𝐿−1 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 −1
= 𝑒 𝐴𝑇
1 0 −1 1
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 𝑠 −
0 1 0 −2 1 1
𝐿−1 𝐿−1
𝑠+1 𝑠+1 𝑠+2
𝑠+1 −1 =
= 1
0 𝑠+2 0 𝐿−1
𝑠+2

−𝑡
𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 = 𝑠 + 1 𝑠 + 2 = 𝑒 𝑒 −𝑡 − 𝑒 −2𝑡
0 𝑒 −2𝑡