Introduction to Applied Mathematics

SAPM011
Compiled by

Dr F.J. Mhlanga
Most of the material presented here were taken from 1.

ii
Contents

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i

Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii

1 Introduction 1

1.1 Space and Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.2 Review of Vector Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.2.1 Vector Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2.2 The dot or scalar product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.2.3 Vector cross product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.2.4 Scalar triple product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.2.5 Vector triple product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.3 Derivative of a Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.4 Vector Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.5 The Line integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.6 The Gradient, Divergence and Curl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1.7 Tutorial 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2 Kinematics 13

2.1 Velocity and Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2.2 Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

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 2.2.1 Cartesian coordinate system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2.2.2 Plane polar coordinate (r, θ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.3 Motion with constant Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

2.4 One-Dimensional Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2.4.1 Motion graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2.4.2 Free fall under gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2.5 Accident Reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2.6 Depth of a well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2.6.1 Circular motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2.7 Tutorial 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

3 Dynamics 25

3.1 Types of Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

3.1.1 Action at a distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

3.1.2 Contact forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

3.2 Motion in a Uniform Force Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

3.2.1 Free falling bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

3.2.2 Projectiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

3.2.3 The simple pendulum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

3.3 Particle Motion in a Straight Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

3.4 Uniform Circular Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3.5 Motion on a Rough Inclined Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3.5.1 Motion up a slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3.5.2 Motion down a slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

3.6 Systems of Connected Bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

3.7 Tutorial 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

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4 Motion under a Velocity Dependence Force 42

4.1 Straight line motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

4.2 Projectile Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

4.3 Free Fall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

4.4 Particle Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

4.4.1 Damped harmonic oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

4.4.2 Forced Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

4.4.3 The simple pendulum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

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Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Space and Time

In the study of mechanics we often assume the existence of a universal time, with the origin
of time defined appropriately so that there is a common time for all observers. Time is
absolute, a continuum independent of the environment and is constant in all space and for
all ages.
Space is absolute and its existence is independent of the existence on non-existence of any
matter within the space. Space and time are closely related.
We define a frame of reference as a three-dimensional geometric background to which we
can attach an origin and a coordinate system. This usually means a fixed location such
as a building, road junction etc. Usually the choice of a frame of reference is dictated by
convenience.

1.2 Review of Vector Analysis

The quantities that we encounter in mechanics may, in addition to having magnitude, also
have a particular orientation, or direction. Such an object is called a vector quantity. Ex-
amples of vector quantities include displacement, force, velocity and acceleration.
Quantities such as distance, mass, speed, time and temperature are simply numbers but
with an associated unit. These are called scalar quantities.
In general, it is useful to classify all physical quantities as either vectors or scalars depending

1
on whether or not they involve the notion of direction.Two vectors are said to be equal if
they are parallel, have the same sense and equal magnitude. We will denote the vector by
a bold face, say A. The vector A can represent a force, velocity or acceleration. We can
specify the position vector at any point P by the coordinates x, y z of the point relative to
rectangular or cartesian coordinates. A cartesian coordinate system is based on three mu-
tually perpendicular coordinate planes. These intersect in three mutually orthogonal lines,
the x, y and z ases. The point of intersection of these axes is referred to as the origin The
system is called right handed if the third finer of the right hand points in the positive z
direction when the thumb and the index finger are pointing in the positive x direction and
and y direction respectively.
A vector quantity usually has components in different coordinate directions. The vector A
which defines uniquely the position of the point P in cartesian coordinates, can be resolved
into components A1 , A2 and A3 along each of the three mutually perpendicular axes x, y
and z respectively. Each component represents an orthogonal projection of the vector A in
each coordinate direction. We write this vector uniquely in the form

A = A1 i + A2 j + A3 k

here i, j and k are unit vector uniquely in the x, y and z directions respectively. The
magnitude of A, that is, the distance OP is determined from its components using geometric
arguments to be q
| A |= A21 + A22 + A23 .
A
A unit vector in the direction of the vector A, denoted by Â, is defined by  = |A|
.
Two vectors are said to be equal if they have the same magnitude and orientation. A set of
vectors whose orientation is parallel to a plane are said to be coplaner.

1.2.1 Vector Algebra

Addition of scalar quantities is by simple arithmetic. In finding the sum or difference of two
vectors we have to take into account their particular orientations. The final displacement is
called the resultant displacement. To find the resultant displacement of a given scenario, it
is always good practice to draw a diagram to represent various displacements. If the diagram
is drawn to scale the resultant displacement is read from the diagram. The vector sum of a
and b is a vector c which also lies in the plane of a and b. The three vectors a, b and c are

2
in fact coplanar. The vector c obtained by adding a and b is called the resultant vector. We
define the vector −a as a vector with the same magnitude as a but in the opposite direction.
We call the sum of a and −a the null vector, and represent it by 0. Thus

a + (−a) = 0

For any three vectors a, b and c the following rules apply

1.
a+b=b+a

This is called the commutative law of addition of vectors.

2.
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c)

This is called the associative law of addition of vectors.

3.
m(a + b) = (ma) + (mb) = (a + b)m

where m is an arbitrary scalar quantity.

1.2.2 The dot or scalar product

Suppose that a and b are two nonzero vectors. These vectors determine an angle θ between
them. We define the dot or scalar product of two vectors a and b by

a · b =| a || b | cos(θ), 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π, (1.1)

where θ is the angle between the two vectors a and b

If a = x1 i + y1 j + z1 k and b = x2 i + y2 j + z3 k, the dot product of a and bis defined by

a · b = x1 x2 + y1 y2 + z1 z2 (1.2)

The dot product is found by simply adding the products of the corresponding components.

Example 1.2.1 Let a = 2i − 3j and b = 3i + 5k. Find the dot product and the angle
determined by a and b.

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The following properties of dot product are easily verified from equation (1.1).

1. a · b = b · a

2. a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c

3. m(a · b) = (ma) · b = a · (mb), where m is a constant

4. a · b = ai bi , where (i = 1, 2, 3)

5. If a · b = 0 and a,b 6= 0, then a is perpendicular to b. In this case θ = π/2 so that

cos θ = 0

• Work done
The work done by a constant force F in causing a displacement d in the direction of
the force is equal to the scalar product of F and d. If we represent the work done by
W , the definition above implies that

W =F·d (1.3)

Example 1.2.2 A force of 15N acts along 2i − 4j + 3k and causes a displacement of 5m

along 3i + 4j + 5k. Find the work done by the force.

• Angular velocity
For a body rotating about a fixed axis with constant angular speed ω, the angular
velocity ω extends along the axis of rotation with the direction given by the right hand
rule. Assuming that the origin is on the axis of rotation, the tangential velocity at any
point is given by
v=ω×r (1.4)

where r is the position of the particle.

• Moment of Force (Torque)

If r is the position vector of particle, the torque or moment of the force at F about the
origin O is given by
M=r×F (1.5)

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Example 1.2.3 Three forces

F1 = i + 2j + k, F2 = 3i − 3j + 2k, and F3 = −3i + j − 3k

act at the points P2 (−1, 2, 1), P2 (0, 2, 1) and P3 (2, 0, −1) respectively.
Find the moment of each force about the point P (1, 1, 1) and deduce the moment of force
MP for the system of forces. Deduce the moment force M0 about the origin.

1.2.3 Vector cross product

We consider two vectors a and b which are at an angle θ to each other. Let n̂ be the unit
vector perpendicular to both a and b. The cross product or vector cross product of a and
b is the vector
c = a × b =| a || b | sin(n̂θ), (1.6)

In particular if a and b are orthogonal, | a × b |= ab. The vector c is perpendicular to the

plane of both a and b.The product | a × b | is the area of a parallelogram determined by a
and b. The vector product has the following properties:

1. a × b = −b × a

2. a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c

3. If a × b = 0 and a, b 6= 0, then a and b lie along the same straight line, that is the
two vectors are parallel to each other.

4. a × b = (a2 b3 − a3 b2 )i + (a3 b1 − a1 b3 )j + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )k.

The formula for the vector product in terms of the components in (4) above is easily remem-
bered when written in the form

i j k
a×b= a1 a2 a3 (1.7)
b1 b2 b3

Example 1.2.4 Compute a × b if a = i + 2j + k and b = 3i − j + 4k

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1.2.4 Scalar triple product

The scalar triple product is the expression a · (b × c). The scalar triple product is a quantity
with the following property

a · (b × c) = (b × c) · a = −a · (c × b) = b · (c × a) = c · (a × b) (1.8)

These results can be proved by expanding and simplifying a 3 × 3 determinant

a1 a2 a3
a · (b × c) = b1 b2 b3 (1.9)
c1 c2 c3

The volume of the parallelogram is the absolute value | a · (b × c) |.

1.2.5 Vector triple product

The expression a × (b × c) is called the vector triple product. It can be shown that

a × (b × c) = (a · c)b − (a · b)c (1.10)

1.3 Derivative of a Vector

Consider a vector r(t), which varies as a fuction of a scalar variable t, the time. We say that
a vector function r(t) is continuous at a point if limt→t0 r(t) = r(t0 ). The vector function is
differentiable if
dr r(t + 4t) − r(t)
= lim (1.11)
dt 4t→0 4t
exists.This limit if it exists is also a vector quantity.
If r(t) is the position vector of some point P relative to the origin O then we can write r(t)
as
r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k (1.12)

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where x(t), y(t) and z(t) are coordinates of P . As t changes, the terminal point of r describes
a space curve with parametric equations

x = x(t, y = y(t), z = z(t) (1.13)

The derivative
dr dx dy dz
= i+ j+ k (1.14)
dt dt dt dt
if it exists, represents the velocity with which the terminal point of r describes the space
curve, that is
dr
v=
dt
If s represents the arc length measured from some fixed point on the space curve, then we
may also describe the position vector r by r = r(s), where

x = x(s), y = y(s), z = z(s)

Representing the unit vector in the direction of the tangent by T, we have

dr
=T (1.15)
ds

The velocity with which the terminal point of r describes the space curve is given by

dr dr ds ds
v= = = T (1.16)
dt ds dt dt
ds
Setting v the magnitude of v to be v = dt
we see that

v = vT (1.17)

The acceleration with which the terminal point of r describes the space curve is

d2 r dv
a= 2
= (1.18)
dt dt

We may write the acceleration using (1.17) as

d dv dT
a= (v T) = T + v (1.19)
dt dt dt

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Example 1.3.1 A space curve is described by

r(t) = 2 cos 3ti + 2 sin 3tj + 3k.

Find the unit tangent to the curve and the acceleration of the particle.

Differentiating of products of vector functions is closely related to the differentiation of scalar

functions. Let a, b and c be three vector functions and suppose that φ(t) is a scalar function.
The following properties are easily deduced:

d dφ
1. dt
(φa) = φ da
dt
+ dt
a

d db da
2. dt
(a · b) = a · dt
+ dt
·b

d db da
3. dt
(a × b) = a × dt
+ dt
×b

1.4 Vector Integration

If r is a single valued and continuous function representing the position vector of a moving
particle then the velocity of the particle is given by

dr
v= (1.20)
dt

We call the vector function r the integral of the velocity function v with respect to time.
The usual notation used is Z
r= vdt (1.21)

Equation (1.21) is without limits and is called an indefinite integral. If the times interval
(t1 , t2 ) is given, then we write Z t2
r= vdt (1.22)
t1

Equation (1.22) is called the definite integral of v with respect to time.

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1.5 The Line integral

A line integral can be conveniently be expressed in a vector form. For instance, if F =

F1 i + F2 j + F3 k, the the line integral of F,
Z Z Z
F1 dx + F2 dy + F3 dz = (F1 i + F2 j + F3 k) · (idx + jdy + kdz) = F · dr, (1.23)
C C C

where dr = idx + jdy + kdz. If F is a force acting on an object at each point (x, y, z), then
equation (1.23) represents the total work done in moving the object along the curve C, hence
the importance of line integrals to the understanding of mechanics.
Exercise
Evaluate the line integral
Z Z
F · dr = (2x2 − 5yz)dx + (y + 3xz)dy + (1 − xyz 2 )dz,
C C

from (0, 0, 0) to (1, 1, 1) along the following paths C:

(a) the straight line joining (0, 0, 0) and (1, 1, 1).
(b) x = t, y = t2 z = t3

1.6 The Gradient, Divergence and Curl

The operator
∂ ∂ ∂
∇=i +j +k
∂x ∂y ∂z
is called the gradient operator. The symbol ∇ is called the ”del“ or ”nabla“ operator. If to
each point (x, y, z) of a region in space there exist a scalar function φ(x, y, z) with continuous
first order derivatives, then we define the rate of change or the gradient of φ(x, y, z) by

∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
∇φ = i +j +k . (1.24)
∂x ∂y ∂z

It is clear therefore that by the gradient of the scalar function we are in fact thinking about
differentiation with respect to the coordinate axes. The gradient of a scalar function is a
vector function which points in the direction of the maximum rate of increase of the scalar
function. The maximum rate of increase of φ per unit time is given by the magnitude of the
gradient function.

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The rate of change of a vector field, such as a velocity or a force field is described in terms of
its divergence or its curl. Thus in differentiating a vector function F, we talk of the divergence
of F, denoted by divF or ∇ · F. This may be thought of as spatial rate of expansion of F
from a point, usually the origin. The divergence of F is given by
 
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂F1 ∂F2 ∂F3
∇·F= i +j +k · (F1 i + F2 j + F3 k) = + + . (1.25)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z

We see from this result that the divergence of a vector function is a scalar function. In fluid
mechanics, we intuitively think of a flow as having zero divergence if there are no sources or
sinks within the flow field. A vector function whose divergence is zero is said to be solenoidal.
Example
Show that the vector field

v = (2x sin y + cos 3y)i + (sin x − 2z)j + (2x cos x − 2z sin y)k,

is solenoidal.

Alternatively, we can characterise the rate of change of a vector field F by its curl. This is
denoted by curlF and denoted by

i j k      
∂ ∂ ∂
∂F3 ∂F2 ∂F1 ∂F3 ∂F2 ∂F1
curl F = ∂x ∂y ∂z
=i − +j − +k − . (1.26)
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
F1 F2 F3

We some times use the notation ∇ × F for the curl of F .

To get a naive feel of the physical meaning of divergence and curl, we can imagine a fluid,
say, water emanating from a source such as a spring. Divergence then describes the extend
to which the water explodes or diverges from spring, that is, the spread of the flow field.
The curl describes the swirling or whirlpool nature of the flow field. The curl of a vector
field is thus at times called the vortex density of the field.

A vector field is said to be a conservative vector field or irrotational is its curl is zero. That
is, a vector field F is conservative if
curlF = 0. (1.27)

A conservative vector field can be written as minus the gradient of a scalar function. Hence

10
if F is given as a conservative vector field, it is possible to find a scalar function φ(x, y, z),
called the scalar potential such that

F = −∇φ(x, y, z). (1.28)

Example
Show that the vector field
F = 2i + yz 2 j + y 2 zk

is a conservative vector field and find the associated scalar potential.

1.7 Tutorial 1
p
1. Prove that the magnitude | A | of a vector A = A1 i+A2 j+A3 k is | A |= A21 + A22 + A23 .

2. Evaluate the following

(a) i · i, (b) i · k (c) k · j
(d) j · (2i − 3j + k) (e) (2i − j) · (3i + k).

3. If A = A1 i + A2 j + A3 k, show that
√ q
| A |= A·A= A21 + A22 + A23

4. (a) If A = A1 i + A2 j + A3 k and B = B1 i + B2 j + B3 k prove that

i j k
A×B= A1 A2 A3 (1.29)
B1 B2 B3

(b) If A = 3i − j + 2k and B = 2i + 3j − k, find A × B.

5. Find the angle between a = i − 2j + k and b = 2i + 3k.

6. Find the area of the triangle with vertices at P (2, 3, 5), Q(4, 2, −1) and R(3, 6, 4).

7. Find the volume of a parallelogram with sides A = 3i−j, B = j+2k, C = i+5j+4k.

11
 8. If r = (t3 + 2t)i − 3e−2t j + 2 sin 5tk, find, at t = 0,
dr dr d2 r d2 r
(a) dt
, (b) | dt
| (c) dt2
(d) | dt2
|

9. The point of application of the force F = (−1, 2, 3) moves from the origin to (3, 0, 0)
and then to (3, 2, −3) and back to the origin along straight lines. Show that the total
work done is zero.

10. The position vector r of a particle at time t is

r = 2i + 3tj + t2 k (1.30)

Find the velocity and acceleration vectors. At what time (if ever) are these vectors
perpendicular?

11. The position vector of the point P is

r = 5 cos 2ti + 3 sin 2tj + 4 sin 2tk. (1.31)

Find the velocity vector and the magnitude of the velocity. Show that the displacement
vector is always perpendicular to the velocity vector. Express the acceleration vector
in terms of the displacement vector.

12. A force F = 4i − 4j + 2k acts at the point (−1, 1, 1). Find the moment of force about
the origin and the work done when the point of application of the force moves from
(−1, 1, 1) to the origin.
R
13. If F = (3x2 − 6yz)i + (2y + 3xz)j + (1 − 4xyz 2 )k, evaluate C
F · dr from (0, 0, 0) to
(1, 1, 1) along the following paths C:
(a) x = t, y = t2 , z = t3
(b) the straight line joining (0, 0, 0) and (1, 1, 1).

14. If φ = x2 yz 3 and F = xzi − y 2 j + 2x2 yk, find (a) ∇φ, (b) ∇ · F, (c) ∇ × F, (d)
div(φF) (e) curl(φF).

15. (a) IF F = (2xy + z 3 )i + (x2 + 2y)j + (3xz 2 − 2)k, show that ∇ × F = 0

(b) Find the scalar function φ such that F = ∇φ.

12
Chapter 2

Kinematics

Kinematics is concerned with the motion of bodies in space. We are interested in the motion
of a particle such as a projectile or a rocket. This chapter is concerned with the analysis
of motions. We are interested in predicting the behaviour of bodies which are already in
motion. of particular interest is what happens to the velocity and acceleration of a body as
it moves. Can we predict the position of the body at any instant? We apply the various
techniques developed in the chapter to the practical problems of accident investigation and
finding the depth of a wall.

2.1 Velocity and Acceleration

A central feature in the description of motion of a body is its velocity. The velocity of
a particle is a vector quantity with a specific direction as observed from the origin of our
chosen frame of reference. The first step in analysing the motion of a body is to choose a
sensible frame of reference and an origin from which the position of a particle is located. If
we consider a particle whose position vector is r = r(t) relative to the frame of reference,
then we define the velocity of this particle by

dr(t)
v(t) = ṙ(t) = (2.1)
dt

The velocity of the particle represents the rate of change of position with time.
dr(t)
We note that geometrically, dt
represents the slope of a tangent to the graph of displace-
ment versus time at a given instant. Equation (2.1) defines the instantaneous velocity at

13
time t. In many problems we are merely interested in the magnitude of the velocity. In this
case we define the speed of the particle as the distance moved per second, the direction is
irrelevant.
distance
Speed = (2.2)
time
The speed between locations is not uniform. It is therefore important to introduce the
concept of average velocity which is defined as follows:

total distance travelled

average speed = (2.3)
total time taken

When the velocity of a body is changing with time, we say that the body is accelerating.
The acceleration of the particle , denoted by a(t) or r̈(t) is the rate of change of the velocity
with respect to time. This is given as

dv(t) d2 r(t)
a(t) = r̈(t) = = (2.4)
dt dt2

Both the acceleration and the velocity of a particle are vector quantities having both mag-
nitude and an associated direction.

2.2 Coordinate System

Central to the description of the motion of a body is the idea of a frame of reference from
which the motion is analysed. Many coordinate systems are in common use, and which one
to use in a particular problem is purely a matter of taste and convenience. We describe here
two of the most common used coordinate systems

2.2.1 Cartesian coordinate system

In a Cartesian coordinate system the x, y and z coordinates of a point relative to the

origin are given. The position vector of a particle with respect to a fixed origin O, can be
represented as
r(t) = x(t)i + y(t)j + z(t)k, (2.5)

where i, j and k are unit vectors with constant directions. The unit vectors from a right-
handed system in the sense of a right-hand screw turned from i towards j will advance in

14
the direction of k.
Using equations (2.1) and (2.4), we may write the velocity and acceleration vectors of the
particle at any time t as
ṙ(t) = ẋ(t)i + ẏ(t)j + ż(t)k, (2.6)

r̈(t) = x¨(t)i + ÿ(t)j + z̈(t)k, (2.7)

In the simple frame of reference, the speed of the particle is given by

√ p
v= r·r= ẋ2 + ẏ 2 + ż 2 , (2.8)

and the magnitude of the acceleration is

p
r̈ = ẍ2 + ÿ 2 + z̈ 2 (2.9)

2.2.2 Plane polar coordinate (r, θ)

In plane polar coordinates (r, θ) represents the coordinates describing the position of an
arbitrary particle P , as an intersection of a circle and a line from the centre of the circle.
x = r cos(θ) and y = r sin(θ) are the relations between the Cartesian coordinates x, y and z
of the particle P and the polar coordinates. We take r to represent the distance OP with
p
r= x2 + y 2 > 0

The values of θ are usually chosen in the range

0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π or − π ≤ θ ≤ π

where the later choice has the advantage of prescribing a one-to-one relationship between x,
y and r, θ for r > 0. The unit vectors in the direction of and normal to r are

er = cos θi + sin θj, (2.10)

eθ = − sin θi + cos θj (2.11)

We can therefore represent the position vector r as

r(t) = r cos θi + r sin θj (2.12)

15
It is useful to note that from equations (2.10) and (2.11) we can represent the unit vector i
and j in cartesian coordinates in terms of the unit vectors er and eθ in plane polar coordinates
as
i = cos θer − sin θeθ (2.13)

j = sin θer + cos θeθ . (2.14)

A second point to note is that the unit vectors er and eθ have constant magnitude but the
directions vary with time. This is because the angle θ varies with time and change in θ
will affect the orientation of the unit vectors. With this in mind, we can now proceed to
calculate the general expressions for velocity and acceleration in plane polar coordinates. To
find the velocity of a particle in a frame of reference referred to plane polar coordinates, we
differentiate equation (2.12) with respect to time t to get

d d
ṙ(t) = (r cos θ)i + (r sin θ)j = (ṙ cos θ − r sin θθ̇)i + (ṙ sin θ + r cos θθ̇)j. (2.15)
dt dt

Using equations (2.10) and (2.11) we may write equation (2.15) as

ṙ = ṙer + rθ̇eθ . (2.16)

We call ṙ and rθ̇ the radial and transverse components of the velocity respectively. This
gives the speed of the particle as
p p
v= ẋ2 + ẏ 2 = ṙ2 + r2 θ̇2 (2.17)

ds
This speed is in fact dt
where a is the arc length or distance along a circular curve. Differ-
entiating equation (2.16) with respect to t and using the following results,

der
= − sin θθ̇i + cos θθ̇j = θ̇eθ (2.18)
dt

deθ
= − cos θθ̇i − sin θθ̇j = −θ̇er (2.19)
dt
we get the particle acceleration to be

r̈(t) = (r̈ − rθ̇2 )er + (2ṙθ̇ + rθ̈)eθ . (2.20)

16
If we fix the angle θ = constant, this expression for the acceleration implies that P is just
moving along a fixed straight line.

2.3 Motion with constant Acceleration

The most common example of uniform acceleration is that of a falling body freely under the
influence of gravity near the earth’s surface. The acceleration of the particle is represented
by
d2 r
a= . (2.21)
dt2
If this acceleration is constant, then we can integrate equation (2.21) with respect to t to get

dr
v(t) = = at + c. (2.22)
dt

where the vector c is obtained from the initial conditions. Thus if at time t = 0 the particle
is moving with velocity u, equation (2.22) implies that c=u, so that

v(t) = u + at. (2.23)

Integrating equation (2.23) yields

1
r(t) = r0 + ut + at2 (2.24)
2

where r0 is a constant vector of integration determined by the initial conditions. We can

recast this equation in a more useful form by noting from equation (2.23) that

v 2 = v · v = u2 + a2 t2 + 2u · at, (2.25)

and so using equation (2.24) in equation (2.25) implies that

v 2 = u2 + 2a(r − r0 ). (2.26)

17
2.4 One-Dimensional Motion

If the position of the particle can at any instant be located by specifying a single param-
eter, say t where r = r(t), then the motion is called one-dimensional. In general, for one-
dimensional motion, the position vector of the particle takes the form

r = r(t)e + r0 . (2.27)

where e is a unit vector in the direction of the motion and r0 is a constant vector independent
of t. Let us consider the case of a particle moving parallel to the position x direction.
Assuming that it starts initially from rest, we can write

r = x(t)i, r0 = 0, u = u(t)i, a = a(t)i. (2.28)

where u = ẋ and a = ẍ. The equations (2.23) (2.24) and (2.26) can now be simplified to
give
v = u + at. (2.29)

v 2 = u2 + 2ax, (2.30)
1
x = ut + at2 . (2.31)
2
Using these relations we may therefore calculate the speed, the acceleration as well as locate
the position of the particle at any given instant.

2.4.1 Motion graphs

Equation (2.29) is a linear and if a graph is drawn, it will be a straight line if the acceleration
is constant. The slope gives the acceleration of the particle and the area under the graph
gives the distance travelled.
If the acceleration of a particle is not constant, equation (2.31 is no longer valid. We can
however still obtain the velocity and acceleration at any instant from displacement and
velocity time graphs in the following manner.
(a) Displacement-time graphs
The steepness of the curve is measured by the gradient. At any instant, this gradient is

18
equal to instantaneous speed of the body. The gradient of the curve is measured as

change in vertical step 4d

gradient = = (2.32)
corresponding change in horizontal step 4t

where the changes in the vertical and horizontal steps, 4x and 4t respectively are very
small. For a straight line graph, the gradient remains unchanged implying constant speed.
The average velocity is calculated as follows:

total displacement
average velocity = (2.33)
total time

(b) Velocity-time graphs

For a car starting from rest and moving with constant acceleration, the velocity-time graph
is a straight line through the origin. The gradient of the velocity-time graph gives the
acceleration of the car.
If a car whose initial velocity is u and then accelerates at a constant rate to a velocity v, its
total displacement is calculated as follows:

total displacement = total area under the graph (2.34)

This gives
1
x = ut + at2 (2.35)
2

2.4.2 Free fall under gravity

The motion of a particle falling freely under gravity is another common example of one-
dimensional motion. The acceleration is due to gravity, g is fairly constant close to the
surface of the earth and so we can use equations (2.29) and (2.31) to analyse the motion of
an object falling freely under gravity. The equation

1
x = ut + gt2
2

provides a convenient way of measuring g. If the particle is falling from rest, such as a fruit
dropping from a tree brach, the initial velocity is zero so that

1
x = gt2 (2.36)
2
19
We can measure the distance x and the time t so that equation (2.36) gives the value of g.

2.5 Accident Reconstruction

The speed of a vehicle which has been involved in an accident and has skid marks on the
road surface can be determined from kinematic equations (2.29) and (2.31). Skid marks
are an indication that a vehicle decelerated with some or all its speed wheels locked. The
techniques used in accident reconstruction are based upon the definition of acceleration and
velocity together with the Newton’s laws of motion.
The procedure is as carried out as follows. Using the same or similar vehicle, a skid test
is performed from a known speed to rest. The length of the skid mark is then measured
and deceleration experienced by the car calculated from v 2 = u2 + 2ax. The deceleration
experienced by the vehicle is constant and the same for all vehicles under similar road
conditions, determining by the same coefficient of sliding friction. Within each of the three
categories of vehicles, motor cycles, cars and heavy commercial vehicles. the coefficient of
friction of individual tyres on the same road is fairly constant, with variations of typically
less than 5%.
Having obtained the deceleration of the vehicle, the length of the original skid is measured
and the equation v 2 = u2 + 2ax used again to find the speed of the vehicle before it started
skidding.
Suppose for instance that in the skid test, the initial speed is 45km/h and the length of the
skid is S1 . Then using the equation

v 2 = u2 − 2aS1 ,

with v = 0 we get
12.52
a= . (2.37)
2S1
Now suppose that the length of the original skid mark is S2 . The applying the same equation
we get r
p S2
u = 2aS1 = 12.5 m/s (2.38)
s1
This is the speed of the vehicle when it started skidding.

20
2.6 Depth of a well

In dry, semi-arid regions many agricultural activities rely heavily on well water. The well
has to be sunk deep into the earth’s crust to continue yielding water during the usually long
dry months. It is important therefore that we have a cheap and effective way of measuring
the depth of the well. One effective way we can use to approximate depth of the well is by
dropping a stone down the well and noting the time, say T , which elapses before the impact
at the bottom is heard. If the speed of sound in air is assumed constant and known, then
calculating the depth is an easy matter. We proceed as follows. Suppose the depth of the
well is h metres and the speed of sound in air is constant and equal to c m/s. If the time
taken by the stone to reach the bottom of the well is t,then from equation (2.31) with the
initial velocity u of the stone zero, we get
  12
2h
t1 = , (2.39)
g

where g is the acceleration due to gravity. The time t1 taken by the sound of the impact at
the bottom of the well to reach the top is

h
t2 = (2.40)
c

Combining equations (2.39) and (2.40) shows that the total time elapsed from the moment
the stone is dropped to the time the impact at the bottom is heard is
  12
2h h
t = t1 + t2 = + . (2.41)
g c

Expanding and rearranging we get an equation which is quadratic in h, the depth of the
well;
gh2 − 2h(c2 + gct) + gc2 t2 = 0. (2.42)

This equation has roots

c 1
h = (c + gt ± (c2 + 2cgt) 2 ). (2.43)
g
We choose the smaller root so that h does not exceed 2c2 /g.

Example 2.6.1 A body from rest and its displacement after a time t is x = 2t2 − 3t + 1.
Show that the acceleration is constant and find its value. Find the velocity when t = 2s.

21
2.6.1 Circular motion

We consider the case of a particle P that is moving with a constant speed around radius r
centred at the origin O. We wish to determine the velocity and acceleration of this particle.
We note that the radius of the circle is not changing with time and has a fixed value r0 , say.
The equation of motion of the particle is then given by

r(t) = r0 er (2.44)

Since the radius is constant, ṙ = 0 and since the speed is also constant, this implies that
the rate of change of the angle θ, that is θ̇ = constant. Hence θ̈ = 0. Thus the velocity and
acceleration of the particle are found by using these results in equations (2.16) and (2.20) to
be
ṙ(t) = r0 θ̇eθ and r̈(t) = −r0 θ̇2 er (2.45)

For motion round a circle at a non-constant speed, we must have

r̈(t) = r0 θ̇2 er − r0 θ̈eθ (2.46)

Equation (2.45) show that for a particle moving in a circle with constant speed, the velocity
vector only has a traverse component, while the acceleration is radial and directed to the
origin O with magnitude r0 θ̇. If the particle is moving with constant speed v then, equation
(2.45) gives
v
θ̇ = ω = = constant (2.47)
r0
where ω is called the angular velocity of the particle. The particle acceleration can be written
as
v2
r̈ = r0 ω 2 er = − er . (2.48)
r0
This acceleration is called centripetal acceleration because it is directed towards the centre
of motion. If we integrate equation (2.47) with respect to t, we get θ = ω(t − t0 ) where t0 is
the value of t when θ = 0. It is interesting to note that since

x = r0 cos θ = r0 cos ω(t − t0 )

then differentiating gives

ẋ = −r0 ω sin ω(t − t0 ) and ẍ = −r0 ω 2 cos ω(t − t0 ).

22
Combining these results we get
ẍ + ω 2 x = 0 (2.49)

Equation (2.49) describes the equation of simple harmonic motion, (SHM). It has the general
solution
x = B cos ωt + D sin ωt (2.50)

which is more useful written in the form

x = A cos(ωt + φ) (2.51)

where A is called the amplitude and φ the initial phase at t = 0. The argument ωt + φ is
referred to as simply the phase of the motion. Any system whose motion is characterised by
2π
equation (2.51) is called a harmonic oscillator. The motion is periodic with a period T = ω
.

2π
Example 2.6.2 Consider a particle P moving along the spiral r = θ
so that

2π
θ= , t ≥ 0, l > 0
(t + l)

and l is a constant. Find the velocity and acceleration components of the particle.

2.7 Tutorial 2

1. A particle moves along a curve whose parametric equations are x = 3e−2t , y = 4 sin 3t,
z = 5 cos 3t where t is time.
(a) Find its velocity and acceleration at any time t.
(b) Find the magnitudes of velocity and acceleration at time t = 0.

2. A particle moves so that its position vector is given by r = cos ωti + sin ωtj where ω is
a constant. Show that
(a) the velocity v of the particle is perpendicular to r, that is, r · v = 0.
(b) the acceleration a is directed towards the origin.
(c) r × v = a constant vector.

3. A particle moves along the space curve r = (t2 + 1)i + (3t − 2)j + (2t3 − 4t2 )k. Find
the following at time t = 2
(a) velocity

23
 (b) acceleration
(c) speed or magnitude of velocity
(d) magnitude of acceleration.

4. A particle moves along the space curve defined by x = e−t cos t, y = e−t sin t, z = e−t .
Find the magnitude of the following at instant time t
(a) velocity
(b) acceleration.

5. Let r, θ) represent the polar coordinates describing the position of a particle. If er is a

unit vector in the direction of the position vector r and eθ is a unit vector perpendicular
to r and in the direction of increasing θ, show that
(a) er = cos θi + sin θj, eθ = − sin θi + cos θj
(b) i = cos θer − sin θeθ , j = sin θer + cos θeθ .

6. Prove that in polar coordinates (a) the velocity is given by

v = ṙer + rθ̇eθ

and (b) the acceleration is given by

a = (r̈ − rθ̇2 )er + (rθ̈ + 2ṙθ̇)eθ .

7. Prove that (a) ėr = θ̇eθ ėθ = −θ̇er .

8. In spherical polar coordinates, r = rer where

er = sin θ cos φi + sin θ sin φj + cos θk (2.52)

eθ = cos θ cos φi + cos θ sin φj − sin θk (2.53)

eφ = − sin θi + cos φj (2.54)

Show that
ṙ = ṙer + rθ̇eθ + rφ̇ sin θeφ . (2.55)

Hence find the acceleration r̈.

24
Chapter 3

Dynamics

Dynamics is the study of motion of particles. It is concerned with the reason why particles
move. Something has to cause the particle to move; that something is a force. A force is
simply a push or a pull. We will look at the various kinds of forces that exist in nature and
relate these to the motion of interacting bodies.
In this chapter we shall look at both the statics of a particle and particle dynamics. Statics
is the study of forces on bodies at rest or in steady motion. We define steady motion as one
in which the particle is moving with uniform speed without accelerating. Particles dynamics
on the other hand deals with the relationships between forces and the motion or kinematics
of a particle.Our main concern is to investigate the reasons behind the motion of particles.
We are guided in these investigations by Newton’s laws. These deals with the motion of a
particle when it is subjected to external forces.
We begin our study by giving statements of Newton’s laws. We consider a particle P with
position vector r relative to the chosen frame of reference. We then represent the velocity
and acceleration of the particle by

v = ṙ, a = v̇ = r̈,

respectively. The first law of classical mechanics postulated by Newton can be stated as:

• every particle remains in a state of rest or in motion with constant speed in a straight
line unless acted upon by an external force.

Tis law states that unless the forces acting on a body are unbalanced, that is, if there is a
resultant force, there will be acceleration of the particle. A body normally shows a certain

25
reluctance to move from rest or to change its velocity once it is in motion. A change in
motion will only occur if the forces acting on the body become unbalanced. This reluctance
to change velocity is known as the inertia of the body. This inertia is directly related to the
mass of the body, the bigger the mass, the bigger the its inertia would be.
A second law gives the relationship between the resultant force on a body, the mass and the
induced acceleration. The law states that:

• the rate of change of momentum is proportional to the impressed force and takes place
in the direction of the straight line in which the force acts.

The second law is always stated mathematical form

F = mv̇ = ma, (3.1)

where F is the external force and m is the mass of the particle. The quantity p = mv is
called the linear momentum of a particle. This law shows that the acceleration is directly
proportional to the force applied and inversely proportional to the mass of the body. The
law is used in two ways:

• having knowledge of a body, we can deduce the forces that act on it.

• if we know the forces acting on the body, we can calculate its motion.

The third law states that

• to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

This law states the fact that forces are always acting in pairs. When a body exerts a force
on another body, the second body exerts a force on the first body. The two forces act as a
pair and one cannot act without the other.

3.1 Types of Forces

There are a number of different forces that will be studied. Some of the forces include:

• action at a distance forces and

26
 • contact forces

what is common between all forces in nature is that they all arise from basic interactions
between different bodies.

3.1.1 Action at a distance

An important and most common type of force between bodies is the so-called action at a
distance force. These are forces which exist between bodies which are not in contact, but
may be a vast distance from each other. Examples include gravitational attraction between
the earth and the sun, electrostatic, electromagnetic and nuclear forces.
The gravitational force that a planet exerts on a body is called the weight of a body. Grav-
itational forces act between all bodies of all sizes. They are independent od all other forces
that might be acting on the particle. The weight is given by W = mg where g is the accel-
eration due to the gravity. This fairly constant near the earth’s surface. Electrostatic and
electromagnetic forces are due to electric charges between different bodies.Nuclear forces are
due to interactions within the nucleus of an atom. They act at extremely short distances.

3.1.2 Contact forces

Contact forces exist between bodies which are very close together. They are very similar in
nature to electrostatic forces but act over very short distances. Examples of contact forces
include active/reactive forces. A force is termed active if it tends to cause a change in the
motion of a body, for example a push or a pull. Examples of active forces include the weight
of an object and the tractive effort of a vehicle.
A reactive force always acts in response to an active force. It cannot act on its own accord.
Thus, for instance, a moving car exerts a downward force on the road. In the absence of any
other forces, the road exerts an upward force on the wheels of the car, which by Newton’s
third law, must balance exactly with the weight of the car. This upward force is an example
of a reactive force and in fact all bodies that are in contact exert forces on each other. Other
examples of reactive forces include inertia and some friction forces.
An important group of contact forces are the friction forces. These forces oppose the move-
ment of bodies which are in relative motion. Friction conditions fall into a number of
categories:

27
• Dry and clean friction
This type of friction is mainly due to surface roughness. A close examination of even
the most smooth surfaces reveals that it has numerous irregularities which impede the
smooth movement of any two such contacting surfaces. Dry friction can be reduced by
improving the smoothness of surfaces.

• Viscous Friction
Viscous friction occurs when there is an excess of lubricant present between two sur-
faces. The force required to cause relative motion is, in this case, required to cause a
shear of the lubricant. Fluid friction is important in the operation of engineering and
industrial machinery.
There are two types of friction forces, static friction which, for rough contact be-
tween an object and a surface always acts in the opposite direction due to the applied
force.There is a limit beyond which the static friction force cannot increase. When
the limit is reached, the surfaces begin to slide over each other. The friction force
is now called limiting friction. The maximum value or limiting static friction force is
proportional to the normal normal force N pressing the surface together. The constant
of proportionality µs is called the coefficient of static friction. Thus

F m = µs N (3.2)

The second kind of friction is called sliding or kinetic friction occurs between a moving
body and a surface. This is in general much smaller than the static friction but still
depends on the normal reaction. The constant of proportionality µk is called the
coefficient of kinetic or sliding friction. Thus the sliding friction is given by

Fs = µk N (3.3)

We note that the friction force is independent of the area of contact between bodies and
the sliding friction is independent of the speed at which surfaces are moving relative
to each other for reasonable speeds. Air friction is another example of a contact force.

28
3.2 Motion in a Uniform Force Field

We define a uniform field of force as one in which the force has constant direction and
magnitude. A typical example is the gravitational field of force. If we take an axis with
negative z as the direction of the force, this remains constant and we may write the force as

F = −mgk (3.4)

where m is the mass of the body, g is the magnitude of the gravitational pull and k the unit
vector in the positive z direction. For any given body, the quantity mg is a constant since
the acceleration is also constant and thus we may replace mg by an arbitrary quantity F0 to
get
F = −F0 k (3.5)

Comparing this result with equation (3.1) we get the acceleration as

F0
a=− k (3.6)
m

In the case of gravitational acceleration, the force F in equation (3.4) is of course the weight
of the particle W . We can write equation (3.6) as

W
F= a (3.7)
g

3.2.1 Free falling bodies

For a freely falling body, the only force acting is due to gravity. From Newton’s second law
of motion, the force is
d2 r
F = ma = m . (3.8)
dt2
However a = −gk so that
d2 r
= −gk. (3.9)
dt2
Let us consider a particular example of the free fall of a sky-diver from a plane at a height,
H above the ground. We take the origin of our coordinate system as the position of the
plane with the z axis increasing downwards and the x axis as the horizontal axis and rewrite

29
equation (3.9) as
d2 z
= gk., (3.10)
dt2
with initial conditions
ż = 0 and z = 0 at t = 0 (3.11)

Considering the scalar form of the equation and integrating once gives

ż = gt + A (3.12)

where A is a constant. Application of the initial conditions shows that A = 0. A second

integration and application of the initial conditions gives

1
z = gt2 ., (3.13)
2

Using this equation, we can calculate the position of the sky-diver at any instant. When he
finally lands on the ground z = H, the time will be
  12
2H
T = . (3.14)
g

In practice, the free fall of the sky-diver is subject to air resistance.

3.2.2 Projectiles

The motion of a body launched into space is subject to air resistance. The magnitude of the
air resistance force, typically depends on the shape of the body, its relative speed and air
density. These factors ensure the motion of a body through air is necessarily complicated. In
this section we consider the motion of bodies launched into space and the subsequent motion
under the influence of gravity. Such a body for instance may be a golf ball, a cricket ball or
even a satellite. We assume the air resistance is insignificant and can be neglected without
distorting the results of the analysis.This assumption can be justified for a body moving
with small relative velocity. We will consider the case when air resistance is important later
in the chapter.
We assume the particle has a mass m and that the only force acting on the particle is the
uniform gravitational field of force. Newton’s second law gives the equation of motion of a

30
projectile to be
d2 r
m = −mgk. (3.15)
dt2
Integrating with respect to time, we get the velocity

dr
= −gtk + A (3.16)
dt

and the displacement vector function

1
r = − gt2 + tA + B (3.17)
2

where A and B are constant vectors representing the projectile velocity and the position
at time t = 0 respectively. Using these expressions, we can calculate certain quantities
pertaining to the motion of a projectile. Assuming that the projectile is launched from the
ground with a given speed v0 say, at a particular angle of elevation θ, we may be interested
in knowing all or some of the following flight parameters:

• the position vector at any given instance

• the highest point the projectile reaches

• the range of the projectile and

• the time of flight.

Suppose that r is the position vector of the particle at any time t, and v the corresponding
velocity, given by equations (3.16) and (3.17) respectively. By resolving the initial speed v0
along and normal to the x-axis direction we get the initial velocity at t = 0, to be

v0 = v0 cos θi + vo sin θk (3.18)

Substituting equation (3.18) into (3.16) at t = 0 we get

A = v0 cos θi + v0 sin θk (3.19)

The velocity is thus given by

dr
= v = v0 cos θi + (v0 sin θ − gt)k (3.20)
dt
31
Integrating equation (3.20) gives the position vector as

1
r = v0 t cos θi + (v0 t sin θ − gt2 )k + B (3.21)
2

The constant vector B is obtained from the initial position at t = 0. If we assume that the
projectile ia launched from rest at the origin at time t = 0, then r = 0 and B = 0. Hence

1
r = v0 t cos θi + (v0 t sin θ − gt2 )k (3.22)
2

In terms of the cartesian coordinates x, y and z, equation (3.22) can be written simply as

x = v0 t cos θ (3.23)

y=0 (3.24)
1
z = v0 t sin θ − gt2 (3.25)
2
The maximum height is achieved when

dz
= u0 sin θ − gt = 0 (3.26)
dt

Hence the time taken for the projectile to achieve maximum height is

v0
t= sin θ (3.27)
g

The maximum height attained is thus obtained from equation (3.25) and (3.27) to be

u20 sin2 θ
z= (3.28)
2g

Taking the surface of the earth as the surface z = 0, we can therefore say that the projectile
returns to the surface of the earth when z = 0. To find the time when the particle returns
to the surface of the earth, we must therefore set z = 0 in equation (3.25). That is,

1
z = 0 = v0 t sin θ − gt2 (3.29)
2

This gives the time of flight as

2v0
t = 0 or t = sin θ. (3.30)
g

32
However, since the particle is launched from the surface of the earth at t = 0, it must
therefore return at
2v0
t= sin θ. (3.31)
g
The range of the particle which is horizontal distance covered by the particle in flight is
x = R when the time is given by equation (3.31). Using the time of flight in equation (3.24)
gives the range
u20
R= sin 2θ. (3.32)
g
The path of the projectile is obtained by combining equations (3.24) and (3.25) to get

gx2
z = x tan θ − (3.33)
2v02 cos2 θ

This equation shows that the projectile follows a parabolic path from launch to the instant
it hits the ground.

Example 3.2.1 A particle is launched with speed V at an angle θ above a horizontal plane.
Derive the expressions for the horizontal and vertical components of the velocity and dis-
placement of the particle. Show that, at any point, the velocity of the particle is equal in
V2
magnitude to that which it would acquire whenfalling freely to that point from a height 2g
above the level of the point of projection, where g is the acceleration due to gravity.

Example 3.2.2 A particle is projected with speed V at an angle α towards a wall which
is at a distance, d from the point of projection. What is the time taken for the particle to
reach the wall? Find the greatest height above the level of the point of projection at which
the projectile hits the wall.

Example 3.2.3 A particle is projected at an angle α to the horizontal up a plane which is

inclined at an angle β to the horizontal. By using coordinates along and perpendicular to the
plane, show that the particle will strike the plane at right angle if

tan α = cot β + 2 tan β. (3.34)

3.2.3 The simple pendulum

Our final example of a uniform gravitational force field is that of a simple pendulum in which
a particle of mass m is fixed at the end of an inextensible string of length l. The string is

33
held in a downward vertical position and made to swing in a vertical plane, with each swing
making a variable angle θ with the vertical downward direction. We take the origin as point
of support of the string with the x-axis increasing in the downward vertical direction and
the y axis in the horizontal direction. Neglecting any air resistance to the motion of the
particle, the position vector of the particle is

r = l cos(θ)i + l sin(θ)j = ler (3.35)

Differentiating gives the velocity and acceleration of the particle as

ṙ = l(− sin(θ)i + cos(θ)j)θ̇ = lθ̇eθ (3.36)

and
r̈ = −l(cos(θ)i + sin(θ)j)θ̇2 + l(− sin(θ)i + cos(θ)j)θ̈ (3.37)

The weight of the particle can be resolved into a component mg cos θ parallel to the length
of the string and a component −mg sin θ along the circular path of the particle.
From Newton’s second law,

F = mr̈ = mgi − T (cos θi + sin θj) = (mg cos θ − T )er − mg sin θeθ (3.38)

However, acceleration is given by the equation (3.37) so that combining equations (3.37) and
(3.38) gives
−mlθ̇2 = mg cos θ − T, (3.39)

mlθ̈ = −mg sin θ. (3.40)

The equation governing the motion of simple pendulum is thus

d2 θ
ml = −mg sin θ (3.41)
dt2

with the tension in the string given by equation (3.39). If we assume that the initial angle
made by the string with the downward vertical is α, then we can write the initial conditions
as
θ = α, θ̇ = 0 at t = 0 (3.42)

34
3.3 Particle Motion in a Straight Line

Here we consider a particle moving along a straight line under the influence of a constant
force F. The simplest type of motion is that in which there is no external forces at all.
In this case we know from Newton’s first law that the particle will continue moving in a
straight line indefinitely. In practice, such perpetual motion cannot be realized since there
will always forces such as air resistance acting to oppose the motion of the particle.
Let us suppose that the particle is set in motion with a constant speed v0 in the positive
x direction, starting from the origin. At time t, the particle will have moved a distance x
along the x-axis. Newton’s second law give the equation of motion as

dv
F = F i = mai = m i (3.43)
dt

which is rearranged and integrated to give

F
v= t+A (3.44)
m

where A is the speed of the particle at time t = 0. In this case at t =) the particle is set in
motion with speed v = u0 so that A = u0 and

F
v= t + u0 (3.45)
m

We may represent the velocity of the particle at any instant as

F
v = vi = t + u0 , (3.46)
m

where u0 = uo i. To find the distance travelled after a given time, we write

dx F
v= = t + u0 (3.47)
dt m

and on integrating equation (3.47) we get

F 2
x = u0 t + t +B (3.48)
2m

where B is the distance at time t = 0. If the particle is initially at the origin, then B = 0 so
that
F 2
x = u0 t + t (3.49)
2m
35
3.4 Uniform Circular Motion

A body in uniform circular motion has constant speed. Since the direction of the motion is
continuously changing this means that the velocity is also continuously changing. Hence the
body must be accelerating.This acceleration does not however cause a change in the speed
of the body since it is directed normal to the velocity vector. The acceleration is directed
towards the centre of motion while the velocity vector is directed along the tangent to the
circular path described by the body. This acceleration is called centripetal acceleration and
the force responsible for this acceleration is called the centripetal force.
For a body in uniform circular motion, the magnitude of the centripetal acceleration is v 2 /r
where v is the tangential speed and r the radius of the circular path. Newton’s second law
shows that the centripetal force is
v2
F=m (3.50)
r
The centripetal force is in the same direction as the acceleration and so must be directed
towards the centre of motion. Since the velocity and the force are at right angles to each
other, this means that there is no motion in the direction of the force.
For a body in uniform circular motion, we call the time taken to complete one revolution or
rotation , the period of motion denoted by T . The frequency of the motion is the number
of rotations per second. The frequency is defined as

1
f= . (3.51)
T

An important practical application of uniform circular motion is that of a car in motion

on a banked road.The purpose of banking is to prevent skidding at reasonable speeds by
supplying a purely normal force to hold the car on the curved road. Suppose the road
is banked at an angle θ and has a radius of curvature r. A car moving on the road has
v2
centripetal acceleration a = r
. If the normal reaction on the car is N then resolving forces
horizontally and vertically gives a pair of equations

mv 2
N cos θ = mg and N sin θ = (3.52)
r

Combining these two equations shows that

v2
tan θ = (3.53)
gr

36
3.5 Motion on a Rough Inclined Plane

We consider a body maintained at rest under its own weight on a rough plane inclined at
an angle θ to the horizontal. The process of identifying all force s acting on the particle
is called isolating the system. Since the body is at rest this implies that an equilibrium of
forces on the body. The particle exerts a force on the plane, and by Newton’s third law there
is a reaction on the particle. This reaction force can be resolved into a component normal
to the plane and a component parallel to the plane. Let us represent the normal reaction of
the plane on the body by N and the friction force by F. This friction force must act up the
slope to maintain the body at rest on the plane. Resolving the forces acting on the body
normal and parallel to the plane gives

N = W cos(θ) and F = W sin(θ) (3.54)

where W is the weight of the body acting downwards. When the motion is about to take
place , the friction force attains its maximum or limiting value given by equation (3.2). That
is
F = µs W cos(θ) and F = W sin(θ) (3.55)

The expression shows that the coefficient of static friction is

µs = tan(θ) (3.56)

The angle θf = tan−1 (µs ) is called the friction angle or the angle of repose. If the angle
of inclination θ is less than θf , this implies that F < µs N and the body remains at rest.
However if θ is greater than θf , the body will slide down the plane. In this case F = µk N
where µk is the coefficient of the sliding friction.

3.5.1 Motion up a slope

If the body is moving up the slope, there must be a resultant force P up the slope. The
friction force F acts down the slope since the body is sliding up the slope. We apply Newton’s
second law to the system of forces and note that there is no acceleration perpendicular to
the slope, that is,
ma = 0 = N − W cos θ.

37
Thus
N = W cos θ (3.57)

Up the slope there is a pull P causing an acceleration a so that

ma = P = F + W cos θ, (3.58)

where F = µN. (We have dropped the suffix k from the coefficient of sliding friction since
this type of friction is the most prevalent).

3.5.2 Motion down a slope

When motion is down the slope, the friction force is up the slope, that is, in the same
direction as the pull P . We again resolve the forces parallel and normal to the incline to get

N = W cos θ and P = W sin θ − F, (3.59)

where again F = µN

Example 3.5.1 A particle of constant mass m is sliding down a frictionless inclined plane.
The angle of inclination is θ and the particle is set moving from the top of the incline. Find
the acceleration and the velocity of the particle. Obtain the distance travelled by the particle
down the incline after time t.

Example 3.5.2 A particle of mass m is placed on a rough plane inclined at an angle θ to

the horizontal. The coefficient of friction is µ. A horizontal force F1 directed towards the
plane acts on the particle in a vertical plane through a line of greatest slope of the inclined
plane. Analyse the motion.

Example 3.5.3 A particle of mass m is placed on a rough plane inclined at an angle θ to

the horizontal. The angle of friction is γ(> θ). A force of magnitude F1 acts on the particle
in a vertical plane through a line of greatest slope and making an angle α with the line of
greatest slope. This force is just sufficient to cause the particle to slip up the incline. Find
the least possible value of F1 as α varies.

38
3.6 Systems of Connected Bodies

In this section we consider hoist and pulley problems on connected bodies.The problems are
of practical interest in industry where it is necessary to lift heavy loads. The forces that
can act on the system of bodies include the rotational inertia of the hoist drum or pulley,
the weight of the body and the tension on the connecting string. Often the motion to be
considered is that of a load of a given mass rising and being accelerated under a driving
torque. We will however considerably simplify the analysis in this section by taking no
account of the effects of the hoist drum or pulley.
Let us consider two particles of mass m1 and m2 (m1 > m2 ) which are connected by means
of a light inextensible string of negligible mass. The string passes over a fixed frictionless
pulley of negligible mass in such a way that the two particles can move up and down without
rotating. We will describe the particles by finding:

• the acceleration of the particle and

• the tension in the string.

Let us first consider the mass m1 . There are two forces acting on m1 :

• its weight, m1 g = m1 gk where k is the unit vector measured downwards,

• the force due to the string, that is, the tension T = −T k, acting upwards.

To calculate the acceleration and the tension on the string, the problem has to be reduced
to a static one by means of an inertia force. Now suppose the mass m1 moves downwards a
distance z then its acceleration becomes

z̈ = z̈k

By Newton’s second law and for balance of vertical forces on m1 we must have

m1 z̈k = m1 gk − T k (3.60)

where m1 z̈ is an inertia force. If we consider the mass m2 we again have two forces, its weight
and tension on the string. The tension is the same for both particles since the string is light
and inextensible. Note that since the string is inextensible, if the acceleration of mass m1

39
ids positive, tat is, if m1 moves downwards a distance z, m2 must move upwards a distance
z and so its acceleration is
z̈ = −z̈k

The equation of motion for the second particle is therefore

−m2 z̈k = m2 gk − T k. (3.61)

It is convenient at this stage to work with the scalar form of equations (3.60) and (3.67),
that is, we work with
m1 z̈ = m1 g − T (3.62)

m2 z̈ = −m2 g + T. (3.63)

Equation (3.62) gives the acceleration as

T
z̈ = g − (3.64)
m1

Substituting equation (3.64) into equation (3.63) gives the tension in each string as

2m1 m2
T = g (3.65)
m1 + m2

Hence the acceleration becomes

m1 − m2
z̈ = g (3.66)
m1 + m2
The pressure on he pulley is
4m1 m2
P = 2T = g (3.67)
m1 + m2
Example 3.6.1 A particle of mass m rests on the surface of a rough plane inclined at an
angle θ to the horizontal. It is connected by a light inelastic string passing over a smooth
pulley at the top of the plane to a particle of mass M (> m) hanging freely. The coefficient
of friction is µ. Find the acceleration of the system when released from rest and the force
exerted by the string on the pulley.

Example 3.6.2 A particle of mass m1 is connected by a light inelastic string passing over a
fixed pulley A to a smooth movable pulley B. Two particles C and D of masses m2 and m3
respectively are connected by a light inelastic string passing over the pulley B of mass m4 .
When the system is moving freely, find the acceleration of each mass and the tension in the
strings. m1 > m2 > m3 .

40
3.7 Tutorial 3

1. Due to force field, a particle of mass 5 units moves along a space curve whose position
vector is given as a function of time t by

r = (2t3 + t)i + (3t4 − t2 + 8)j − 12t2 k

Find (a) the velocity, (b) the momentum (c) the acceleration (d) the force field at any
time t.

2. An object of mass m is thrown vertically upwards from the earth’s surface with speed
v0 . Find (a) the position at any time, (b) the time taken to reach the highest point,
(c) the maximum height reached.

3. A projectile is launched with initial speed v0 at an angle α with the horizontal. Find
(a) the position vector at any time t, (b) the time to reach the highest point, (c) the
maximum height reached, (d) the time of flight back to earth, (e) the range.

4. A particle P of mass m slides without rolling down a frictionless inclined plane of

angle α. If it starts from rest at the top of the incline, find (a) the acceleration, (b)
the velocity (c) the distance travelled after time t.

5. Work out the above problem if the inclined plane has a constant friction µ.

6. A particle of mass m is suspended in equilibrium by two inelastic strings of length a

and b from the pegs which are distant c apart. Find the tension in each string.

7. An inclined plane makes an angle α with the horizontal. A projectile is launched from
the bottom of the inclinewith speed v0 in a direction making an angle β with the
horizontal.
(a) Prove that the range R up the incline is given by

2v02 sin(β − α) cos β

R=
g cos2 α

(b) Prove that the maximum range up the incline is given by

v02
Rmax =
g(1 + sin α)
π
and is achieved when β = 4
+ α2 .

41
Chapter 4

Motion under a Velocity Dependence

Force

A particle moving through any medium will always encounter resistive forces which tend to
slow it down. A cricket ball experiences air resistance while in flight. Motion through fluids
with large viscosities, such as oil, experience large resistive forces and the motion of the
particle is severely retarded. Resistive forces, are commonly known as damping, dissipative
or drag forces. Apart from fluid viscosity, resistive forces may also depend on the shape and
relative speed of the body. This makes the task of modelling the effects of resistive forces
immensely complicated. The effects of theses resistive forces can be lessened to some extent
by modern technologies. For example, the golf ball is designed with dimples to improve its
aerodynamics properties and so improve its flight characteristics.
Resistive forces are not only a nuisance, but in the case of vehicles, aircraft and marine craft,
large media resistance mean that we have to burn more fuel to overcome it. This obviously
hits us all where it matters most, in the pocket.
In modelling the effects of media resistance we have to accept a compromise between taking a
complicated model that conform more closely to reality and making simplifying assumptions
to make the mathematics more manageable. For example, air flow around a body usually
separates near the body forming regions of reverse flow. It will be extremely difficult to
incorporate such a flow regime into the governing equations of a motion. If a particle moves
under a force F in a medium offering a resistive force R, the equation of motion is obtained
from Newton’s second law as
d2 r
m =F−R (4.1)
dt2

42
In the case of a particle moving under the influence of a uniform gravitational field of force,
the force F is simply the weight of the particle,

W = mgk

where k is the unit vector in the vertically downward direction. Equation (4.1) ten simply
becomes
d2 r
m = mgk − R (4.2)
dt2

4.1 Straight line motion

We begin by looking at horizontal motion and investigating the effect of air resistance or
drag on a body of mass m moving along a horizontal surface with speed ẋ. The equation of
motion is obtained from Newton’s second law and can be written in the form

mẍ = F (ẋ) (4.3)

where the horizontal force F depends on the velocity ẋ. Setting

du du
u = ẋ, ẍ = =u
dt dx

the governing differential equation takes the form

du du
m = F (u), and mu = F (u) (4.4)
dt dt

Now consider a railway truck moving along a level track and assume tha the only force
opposing the motion along the track is air resistance. Suppose the air resistance (i) is
proportional to the relative speed of the truck and (ii) is proportional to the square of the
relative speed of the truck. Let us now analyse the motion in each case.
In case (i), the resistance force F ∝ ẋ nor

F = βx

where β is a constant of proportionality. Equation (4.3) becomes

du
m = −βu (4.5)
dt
43
This integrates easily to give
β
ln u = − t+C (4.6)
m
where C is a constant. If at time t = 0, the truck is located at x = 0 and moving with speed
u0 , we get
β
u = u0 e− m t (4.7)

To find the distance travelled in time t, we integrate

du
mu = −βu (4.8)
dx

to get
βx
u= +B (4.9)
m
Using the initial conditions, we get

βx
u = u0 − . (4.10)
m

This model predicts that

mu0
u → 0, x→ , as t → ∞ (4.11)
β

In case (ii), where the resistance force is proportional to the square of the relative speed, the
governing differential equation is
mẍ = −β1 ẋ2 (4.12)
du
Setting u = ẋ and ü = dt
, equation (4.12) becomes

du β1 2
+ u =0 (4.13)
dt m

and on integrating we find that

u0 β1 x
u= and u = u0 r− m (4.14)
1 + (β1 u0 /m)t

The solution above shows that u → 0 as t → ∞ and x → ∞.

44
4.2 Projectile Motion

For our second example of motion under a velocity dependent force, we consider the motion
of a projectile subject to an aerodynamic drag. We assume that the aerodynamic drag is
proportional to the speed of the projectile. The particle P of mass m is projected from the
origin O with speed u0 at an angle θ to the horizontal. The x-axis is horizontal while z is
increasing in the vertically upward direction. The position vector of the particle is r. The
differential equation of the motion is therefore

mr̈ = −mgk − u0 ṙ (4.15)

with initial conditions

r = 0, ṙ = u0 (i cos(θ) + k sin(θ)) at t = 0. (4.16)

It is possible to work with components of the equation of motion, namely

mẍ + µ0 ẋ = 0 (4.17)

mÿ + µ9 ẏ = 0 (4.18)

mz̈ + µ0 ż = −mg, (4.19)

in Cartesian coordinates. We however choose to work with equation (4.15) which we will
write in the form
µ0
r̈ + ṙ = −gk. (4.20)
m
If we set
s = ṙ

we obtain the first order linear differential equation

µ0
ṡ + s = −gk. (4.21)
m

This has an integrating factor given by

Z 
µ0 µ 
0
µ(t) = exp dt = exp t .
m m

45
Multiplying equation (4.21) by this integrating factor and integrating with respect to t we
get
µ0 t mg µ0 t
se m =− ke m + C, (4.22)
µ0
where C is determined by the initial conditions. This gives

mg
C = u0 (i cos(θ) + k sin(θ)) + k (4.23)
µ0

Thus
mg  µ0 t
− m
 µ0 t
s = ṙ = − 1−e k + u0 (i cos(θ) + k sin(θ))e− m . (4.24)
µ0
As t → ∞, ṙ → − mg
µ0
k. The value of the speed

mg
U=
µ0

is called the terminal speed of the projectile. The terminal speed is independent of the speed
of projection. It is attained when the acceleration of the particle is zero. To find the position
vector of the particle we integrate equation (4.24) with respect to time. This gives
 
mg m − µ0 t mu0 µ0 t
r=− t+ e m k− (i cos θ + k sin θ)e− m + B (4.25)
µ0 µ0 µ0

where B is found from the initial conditions to be

m2 g mu0
B= 2
k+ (i cos θ + k sin θ) (4.26)
µ0 µ0

Hence
m2 g mu0 sin θ
   
mgt mu0 cos θ µ0 t
r=− k+ i+ + k (1 − e− m ) (4.27)
µ0 µ0 µ20 µ0
In terms of the scalar component equations, equation (4.27) is decomposed to give

mu0 cos θ  µ0 t

x= 1 − e− m (4.28)
µ0

mu0 sin θ m2 g
 
µ0 t
 mg
z= + 2 1 − e− m − t (4.29)
µ0 µ0 µ0
From these equations, we can obtain the range, the time of flight and the highest point
reached in a straight forward manner.

46
4.3 Free Fall

Let us consider the problem of a sky-diver who is falling freely from a plane at a height H
above the ground. The x-axis is horizontal and the z-axis is increasing downwards from the
plane.The initial conditions are

ż = 0, z = 0 at t = 0. (4.30)

Let us assume that the resistance force is proportional to the square of the speed. Since
the sky-diver is falling downwards, the resistance force must act upwards. The differential
equation of motion is
mz̈ = mg − β ż 2 (4.31)

Setting ż = u and z̈u du

dz
, the equation of motion becomes

du β β
u = g − u2 = (U 2 − u2 ), (4.32)
dz m m

where
mg
U= ,
β
is the terminal speed. Integrating and using initial conditions gives

u2
 
βz
ln 1 − 2 = −2 , (4.33)
U m

so that   12
− 2βz
u=U 1−e m (4.34)

Thus as z → ∞, u → U as expected. To find the distance in terms of time, it is much easier

to write up equation (4.31) in the form

du β
= (U 2 − u2 ) (4.35)
dt m

and integrate twice, than to integrate equation (4.34) directly. Integrating gives
 
βU t
u = U tanh , (4.36)
m

47
so that  
U βU t
z = ln cosh (4.37)
β m
where we have used the initial condition z = 0 at t = 0. Using expansions for cosh x and
ln cosh x, we can write this result as

U 2t U
z≈ − ln 2 (4.38)
m β

4.4 Particle Oscillations

The motion of simple pendulum considered before is an example of periodic motion, that is,
motion which repeats itself after a definite interval. Periodic motion may be produced by a
restoring force proportional to the displacement of the particle from its equilibrium position.
Let us consider a particle of mass m lying on a horizontal frictionless surface in the direction
of increasing x. The particle is attached to one end of a string of unstretched length l and
negligible mass. If the particle is given a displacement along the x-axis, it will oscillate about
the equilibrium position E. Let us now analyse the resulting motion, but first consider the
following prposotion.

• The restoring force on the particle is proportional to the extension of the spring from
its relaxed position.

This is known as Hooke’s law. It tells us that if FR is the restoring force on the spring the

FR = −kxi (4.39)

where k > 0 is the spring constant and x is the distance by which the particle is displaced
from the equilibrium position. The negative sign indicates that the restoring force is directed
towards the centre of the motion, that is, the equilibrium position. However, we know from
Newton’s second law that the restoring force is directly proportional to the acceleration of
the particle with
d2 x
FR = ma = m i (4.40)
dt2
Hence
d2 x
m + kx = 0 (4.41)
dt2
48
Equation (4.41) is the equation of simple harmonic motion obtained before for a particle
describing circular motion. It was shown that this equation has the solution

x = A cos(ωt + φ) (4.42)

where A is the amplitude of the motion and φ is the phase.

4.4.1 Damped harmonic oscillations

Let us suppose that in addition to the restoring force, the damping mechanism produces a
force proportional to the velocity of the oscillating mass. The equation of motion may then
be written as
d2 x dx
m 2
+ b + kx = 0 (4.43)
dt dt
where b is a positive constant called the damping coefficient. Let us rewrite this equation in
the form
ẍ + 2γ ẋ + ω 2 x = 0 (4.44)

where
b k
2γ = , ω2 = (4.45)
m m
Equation (4.44) is a second order differential. We now assume a solution of the form x = eλt .
Substituting this into equation (4.44) gives

λ2 + 2γλ + ω 2 = 0 (4.46)

Hence
p
λ = −γ ± γ 2 − ω2 (4.47)

Three types of damped motions are obtained from this analysis.

• Over damped motion (γ 2 > ω 2 )

The oscillatory motion is said to be over damped if γ 2 > ω 2 . In this case there are two
distinct roots to equation (4.46) namely

λ1 = −γ + β, λ2 = −γ − β

49
 where
p
β= γ 2 − ω2

• Critically damped motion (γ 2 = ω 2 )

For the caseγ 2 = ω 2 , there is only one real root, λ = −γ to the equation (4.46), hence
only one root to equation (4.44).

• Under damped motion (γ 2 < ω 2 )

The motion of oscillator is said to be under camped if γ 2 < ω 2 . The roots of
equation(4.46) are the complex conjugates
p
λ = γ ± iα, where α = ω2 − γ 2

4.4.2 Forced Oscillations

Let us now consider the case where in addition to the restoring force and the damping force,
there is also an external periodic force F (t). For convenience, let us assume that this forcing
term is of the form
F = F0 cos αt

and F0 is a constant. The equation of motion of the simple harmonic oscillator now becomes

ẍ + 2γ ẋ + ω 2 x = f0 cos αt (4.48)

where
F0
f0 =
m
The complimentary solution for equation (4.48) has already been found (the three cases of
damping discussed above) and we therefore need only to find the particular solution in order
to obtain the general solution to equation (4.48). Let us assume a particular solution of the
form
xp = A sin αt + B cos αt (4.49)

where A and B are arbitrary constants to be found. Differentiating gives

ẋp = αA cos αt − αB sin αt,

ẍp = −α2 A sin αt − α2 B cos αt (4.50)

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Substituting these into equation (4.48) gives the two equations

A(ω 2 − α2 ) − 2αγB = 0 and 2αγA + B(ω 2 − α2 ) − f0 = 0 (4.51)

from which we can find A and B. We find that

2αγ(ω 2 − α2 )f0 (ω 2 − α2 )2 f0
A= , B= (4.52)
(ω 2 − α2 )2 + 4γ 2 α2 (ω 2 − α2 )2 + 4γ 2 α2

Hence the particular solution is

2αγ(ω 2 − α2 )f0 (ω 2 − α2 )2 f0
xp = sin αt + cos αt (4.53)
(ω 2 − α2 )2 + 4γ 2 α2 (ω 2 − α2 )2 + 4γ 2 α2

A simple manipulation of equation(4.53) gives

f0
xp = p cos(αt − φ) (4.54)
(ω 2 − α2 )2 + 4γ 2 α2

where  
−1 2γα
φ = tan , 0≤φ≤π (4.55)
ω 2 − α2
is the phase angle.

4.4.3 The simple pendulum

Let us again revisit the simple pendulum problem. In practice, the swing of the pendulum
is damped by the presence of air resistance force. This force is a function the velocity of
the swing. Assuming that the resistance force is quadratic in the velocity, the equation of
motion becomes
mlθ̈ = −mg sin θ − k(lθ̇)2 (4.56)

for the casewhen the angle θ is increasing, that is, when the mass is moving away from the
downward vertical. Thus equation (4.56) is valid when θ̇ > 0. When θ is decreasing, the
appropriate form of the equation is

mlθ̈ = −mg sin θ + k(lθ̇)2 (4.57)

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Let us consider a single swing from

θ = −α and θ̇ = 0 at t = 0 (4.58)

to
θ=β and θ̇ = 0 at t = T (4.59)

We rewrite equation (4.56) in the form

2
d2 θ kl

dθ g
+ = − sin θ (4.60)
dt2 m dt l

by setting
d2 θ dω dθ
2
=ω where ω =
dt dθ dt
so that the equation of motion becomes

dω 2 2kl 2 2g
+ ω = − sin θ (4.61)
dθ m l

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References

1. Sibanda, P. and Makinde, O.D. Particle Mechanics. 2000.

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