History of Lagos

Lagos is the largest city of the West-African country of Nigeria, and its
former capital; it is the largest city in Africa in terms of population with
about 15.3 million people.[1] It is also the 4th largest economy in Africa.
[2]

Aerial view of Lagos in 1929

:
 Historical names
Lagos means "lakes" in Portuguese, the language of the first
Europeans to arrive at the land already inhabited by the Awori who are a
sub-ethnic group of the Yoruba people. The area which was under the
administration of the Benin Kingdom was initially known as "Eko".[3][4]
The Portuguese would refer to it as "Onim" and later "Lagos".[4]

To differentiate the modern settlement from the older kingdom in the

area, the name "Onim" has been applied to the latter by some
historians such as Toby Green.[5]

Beginnings
Lagos was originally inhabited by the Awori subgroup of the Yoruba
people. Trade drew numerous groups to the area, including the Ijebu in
the 15th century, and Binis in the 16th century.[6][7][8][9] The Awori
settled in an island now called Iddo and then in the larger Lagos Island
called Eko.[10] Their ruler Olofin divided the island among his ten sons.
[11]
One of them, Aromire, planted pepper on the nearby island of
Lagos. The palace of the Oba (king) of the Yoruba, Iga Idunganran,
which was later built on this site, is therefore literally translated as
:
 "pepper farm palace".[12]

Some time after the settlement of the Awori, the island came under an
invasion from Benin. During this crisis, the Olofin lead the Awori in
repeatedly beating back the invaders sent by the King of Benin and
soon gained great fame for his successful defence of the Island. A
short while after the Olofin had passed, the group from Benin
remembering their decisive defeat changed their approach. They
arrived once more, this time without a show of force and asked for
permission from the indigenes of the Island to land. This permission
was granted.[13]

Over time as trade with the Portuguese increased, Benin increased

their presence on the island and soon began to attack the people on
the mainland. One of the leaders of a raiding party from the Benin
group was killed at Isheri, and an Awori chief named Ashipa, eager to
secure his position and the favour of the growing power of the King of
Benin, returned the remains of the slain marauder. The King of Benin,
desirous to secure a foot hold on the island, appointed Ashipa as king
of the Island, an appointment which appeared to have no authority.[13]

With the backing of the Benin Kingdom, and the royal Yoruba blood in
Ashipa, this appointment was met with mixed resistance. Ashipa
secured his royal line, and in gratitude to the King of Benin, initiated a
payment of tribute that would not be abolished until 1830.[13]
:
 Arrival of Europeans

Map of West Africa by Herman Moll, 1727

In 1472, Portuguese explorers arrived, and began to trade,[4] eventually

followed by other Europeans.[14] Lagos (Portuguese for "lakes") was a
name given to the settlement by the Portuguese. Throughout history, it
was home to a number of warring ethnic Yoruba groups who had
settled in the area. Following its early settlement by the Awori nobility,
the state first came to the attention of the Portuguese in the 15th
century.[15]

Portuguese explorer Rui de Sequeira visited the area in 1472, naming

the area around the city Lago de Curamo, which means Lake of
Curamo.[16] It's also probable that the city was named after the
:
 homonymous coastal town of Lagos, Portugal, in the Algarve region,
where sailors and settlers would have departed.[17][18][19][20]

The area fell under the domain of Benin in the 16th century.[4] By 1600,
it served as a frontier town, and Benin limited its local presence to
soldiers led by four military commanders. This military presence as well
as the exchange with European traders resulted in economic growth, as
locals would travel along the coast and from further inland to Lagos
Island for trade;[14] at this point, clothes were the main item sold at and
exported from the island as well as Benin as a whole.[21]

In the 17th century, the trade with the Portuguese also began to
increase, as Onim became a center of the Atlantic slave trade. The local
obas (kings) developed good relations with the Portuguese.[4]

By the early 19th century, it was a small kingdom and a tributary to the
Oyo Empire.[22] Like many West African states, Onim developed strong
diplomatic as well as economic links to South America. It sent
embassies to the Portuguese colony of Brazil,[23] and became one of
the first countries to recognize the independence of Brazil in 1823.[22]
Meanwhile, the Oyo Empire had begun to collapse. This allowed Lagos
to assume the leading economic position regionally, becoming the most
important market in the Yoruba territories as well as growing
substantially.[24]
:
 Newspaper illustration from 1852,
showing the reduction of Lagos by
British forces.

British influence
In Britain's early 19th-century fight against the transatlantic slave trade,
its West Africa Squadron or Preventative Squadron as it was also
known, continued to pursue Portuguese, American, French, and Cuban
slave ships and to impose anti-slavery treaties with West African
coastal chiefs with so much doggedness that they created a strong
presence along the West African coast from Sierra Leone all the way to
the Niger Delta (today's Nigeria) and as far south as Congo.[25]

From the crowning of Ado as its Oba, Lagos (then called Eko) had
served as a major center for slave-trade, from which then Oba of Benin
and all of his successors for over two centuries supported — until 1841,
when Oba Akitoye ascended to the throne of Lagos and attempted to
ban slave trading. Local merchants strongly opposed the intended
move, and deposed and exiled the king, and installed Akitoye's brother
:
 Kosoko as Oba.[3] Exiled to Europe, Akitoye met with British authorities,
who had banned slave trading in 1807, and who therefore decided to
support the deposed Oba to regain his throne.

In 1849, Britain appointed John Beecroft Consul of the Bights of Benin

and Biafra, a position he held (along with his governorship of Fernando
Po) until his death in 1854.[26] John Duncan was appointed Vice Consul
and was located at Whydah.[27] At the time of Beecroft's appointment,
the Kingdom of Lagos (under Oba Kosoko) was in the western part of
the Consulate of the Bights of Benin and Biafra and was a key slave
trading port.[28]

In 1851 and with pressure from liberated slaves who now wielded
political and business influence, Britain intervened in Lagos in what is
now known as the Bombardment of Lagos or Capture of Lagos[29][30]
resulting in the installation of Oba Akitoye and the ouster of Oba
Kosoko. Oba Akitoye then signed the Treaty between Great Britain and
Lagos abolishing slavery. The signing of the 1852 treaty ushered in the
Consular Period in Lagos's history wherein Britain provided military
protection for Lagos.[31][4][32]

The Royal Navy originally used the port of the Spanish island of
Fernando Po (now Bioko, Equatorial Guinea) off Nigeria as an
extraterritorial base of operations. In 1855, Spain claimed this port for
itself. The Royal Navy therefore had to find another naval base.[33]
Lagos was the most attractive option.
:
 Colonial Lagos

Lagos Marina 1892

Street in Lagos, c. 1910

Lagos saw protest regarding

house and land tax in 1895

Following threats from Kosoko and the French who were positioned at
Whydah, a decision was made by Lord Palmerston (British Prime
:
 Minister) who noted in 1861, "the expediency of losing no time in
assuming the formal Protectorate of Lagos".[34] William McCoskry, the
Acting Consul in Lagos with Commander Bedingfield convened a
meeting with Oba Dosunmu on 30 July 1861 aboard HMS Prometheus
where Britain's intent was explained and a response to the terms were
required by August 1861. Dosunmu resisted the terms of the treaty but
under the threat to unleash a bombardment on Lagos by Commander
Bedingfield, Dosunmu relented and signed the Lagos Treaty of Cession
on 6 August 1861.[35][36][37]

Lagos as colony

Lagos Marina (around 1900)

:
 Aerial view of Lagos in 1929

Lagos was declared a colony on 5 March 1862 but governed by the

Gold Coast, modern day Ghana. In 1886, Lagos became a separate
colony from the Gold Coast under Governor Cornelius Alfred Moloney.
[38]
Navy port Lagos became an essential trading centre as traders
realised they could count on the protection of the Royal Navy to protect
them from pirates, for example.[33]

Lagos quickly became a destination for immigration. Along with

migrants from all over Nigeria and other West African nations were the
returnee ex-slaves known as Creoles, who came from Freetown, Sierra
Leone, Brazil, and the West Indies to Lagos. The Creoles contributed to
Lagos's modernization and their knowledge of Portuguese architecture
can still be seen from the architecture on Lagos Island. Since the 19th
century, Lagos gradually transformed into a melting pot of Africans and
Europeans.[39][40][6][41]

In 1869, the Cathedral Church of Christ was established in Lagos. Five

years earlier, Samuel Ajayi Crowther had become the first African
bishop of the Anglican Church.
:
 Lagos as capital
The central importance of Lagos for Nigeria can be traced back to
General Lugard, who advanced far north with British troops after 1900
and, as governor, made Lagos the capital of the south and later of the
entire country.

In 1906, Lagos was merged with the Protectorate of Southern Nigeria

and became its capital.[42] In Lekki, near Lagos, the Nigerian Bitumen
Corporation under businessman John Simon Bergheim found oil during
test drilling in 1908.[43]

On January 1, 1914, Northern Nigeria and Southern Nigeria were united

into a single state, the "Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria"; Lagos
became the capital.[44] However, the British ruled northern and
southern Nigeria in different ways, which continues to have an impact
to the present day. In the north, "indirect rule" was practised, which left
the traditional, partly centuries-old ruling structures largely intact. In
the south, like Lagos, the British ruled directly and tried to impart
European achievements to the local inhabitants. This includes the
"Nigerian Council" of the Clifford Constitution of 1922 (https://www.wal
yben.com/clifford-constitution-of-1922/) , a kind of parliament with 46
representatives among which four locals, including three from Lagos.
Northern Nigerians were not represented.[45]
:
 Modernisation
The Lagos Government Railway (https://railwaywondersoftheworld.co
m/nigeria.html) began construction of a Cape Gauge railway line from
Lagos to Ibadan in 1896, which was opened on 4 March 1901. The line
was later extended to Nguru via Oshogbo, Ilorin, Kaduna, Zaria and
Kano, making a total length of about 1360 km.[46] From 1902, the LGR
also operated the Lagos steam tramway.[47]

Telegraph cables connecting Lagos to London had been established by

1886.[48][49][50]

Electrification was implemented in Lagos on 19 September 1898, 17

years after its introduction in England. The total generation at that time
was 60 kilowatts (kW). The power line supplied the Lagos marina from
the Government House to the north side of the island.[51]

In 1901, the first bridge was built between Lagos Island and the
mainland, the Carter Bridge, named after the governor from 1891 to
1898.[52]

In 1913, the Lagos Port was commissioned.[53]

:
 Epidemic
The outbreak of bubonic plague was a milestone in the history of
Lagos. The epidemic, which began in 1924 and lasted until 1931, was
the cause of a total of 1,947 cases and 1,813 deaths, corresponding to
a mortality rate of 94.02%.[54]

Mailboat connection, "Boat

Express"

Mail steamer MS Apapa in route

service between Liverpool and
Lagos/Calabar/Fernando Po
(picture from 1950)

Since 1 February 1914, a regular mailboat service ran between Lagos

and Great Britain (Liverpool). The first mail steamer of this line was the
:
 S/S Akoko.[53] The contact of the colony of Nigeria with Great Britain
was mainly maintained by such mail ships before the beginning of air
transport (1945). Once a month, a mail steamer of the Elder Dempster
Lines from Liverpool docked in the capital Lagos/Apapa and in
Calabar/Port Harcourt. These were alternately the MS Apapa and her
sister ship, the MS Accra. In addition to letters and parcels, they also
carried cargo and about 100 passengers and also stopped in Gambia,
Sierra Leone, Liberia and the Gold Coast (Ghana).[55] This was how
colonial officials, colonial army officers, business travellers and
globetrotters reached the West African colonies of the Commonwealth
or home. Travellers from mail steamers could board the "Boat Express"
waiting next to the steamer and reach Kano in far northern Nigeria
within 43 hours in sleeping and dining cars. Such passengers were
predominantly the officers of the colonial army in the first class
compartment.[56] In 1935, the railway network in colonial Nigeria
reached its maximum expansion. It comprised 3,056 km of track at that
time. In 1916, a 550 m railway bridge over the Niger River and in 1932
(or 1934) a bridge over the Benue River had connected the three parts
of the rail network.[56] 179 mainline and 54 shunting locomotives were
in use. The maintenance and repair workshop in Ebute Metta employed
1,500 locals.[56] High school graduates could be trained by the railway
company as locomotive drivers or technicians in six-year courses -
during which they worked in the workshop mentioned above and in the
construction department, for example. During this training, the
apprentices were paid and received an annual salary of £480 (about
£48,000 in today's money, significantly more than the average Nigerian
:
 income today) upon completion of the training.[56] For the trainees in
Lagos, the railway company had specially provided a discarded but still
functioning steam locomotive, which they could use to learn how it
worked.[56]

Second World War

During the Second World War, in 1942, Lagos played a role in
"Operation Postmaster". In an adventurous way, British special agents
on the nearby but Spanish and thus neutral island of Bioko captured
Italian and German supply ships for U-boats in the South Atlantic and
brought them to the home port of Lagos.[57] The incident - in which no
shot was fired - almost led to Franco's Spain entering the war
alongside the Third Reich and fascist Italy.

In June 1945, railway workers in Lagos initiated a nationwide general

strike. It was the first of its kind in the nation, growing to comprise
200,000 workers and seventeen labor unions.[58][59] In 1946, the
commission increased wages of workers.[60] The strike served as a
focal point for criticism of British rule of Nigeria.[61] It has been cited as
a "turning point" in Nigerian labor relations.[59] An article on the strike
in the Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria declared its main
legacy to be "the need for mutual sobriety." Nigeria did not have
:
 another general strike for nineteen years.[60]

Independence

Map of Lagos' initial city

boundaries, showing its
contemporary districts. This
definition is rarely used in the
present day; the expanded
metropolitan area is now a more
accepted definition of Lagos.

Lagos maintained its status as capital when Nigeria obtained its

independence from Britain in 1960. Lagos experienced rapid growth
throughout the 1960s and 1970s as a result of Nigeria's economic
boom.[62] This continued through the 1980s and 1990s up to the
present date.
:
 Split into 13 LGA's

Modernist fountain of Tinubu

Square, in an image from 1962

Before 27 May 1967, Lagos had been administered directly by the

Federal Government as a Federal Territory through the Federal Ministry
of Lagos Affairs, while the Lagos City Council (LCC) governed the city.
[63]
Lagos, along with the towns from the then Western region (Ikeja,
Agege, Mushin, Ikorodu, Epe and Badagry), were eventually merged to
create Lagos State.[63] Lagos city was split into the present day seven
Local Government Areas (LGAs), while the other towns now make up 13
LGAs in the state. Lagos played the dual role of being the State and
Federal Capital until 1976 when the state capital was moved to Ikeja.
Lagos was adversely affected during Nigeria's military rule.[64]
:
 Music Industry, McCartney's
"Band on the Run"
Lagos has been a centre of the music industry since the seventies.
International stars like Beyoncé also record their hits in Lagos.

The pioneer in this respect was Paul McCartney, who recorded the
album "Band on the Run" with his then band Wings at the EMI studio on
7 Wharf Road in Apapa, Lagos, from August to October 1973. Among
other things, the ex-Beatle hoped for inspiration from the exotic
location. "Band on the Run" is still (2023) McCartney's most successful
album, which is also praised by critics.[65]

The cement armada

One of the strangest chapters in the history of Lagos is that of the
"cement armada". Due to corruption and incompetence of the central
government under General Gowon, hundreds of ships with ordered
cement deliveries - half of the world supply - were lying outside the
port in 1974, causing chaotic scenes.[66][67][68]
:
 Volkswagen plant in Lagos
Volkswagen of Nigeria began assembling the VW 1300 in Lagos on 21
March 1975. In 1976, it produced over 16,000 vehicles, including the
Passat and the Audi 100. In 1982, the Shagari government reacted to
Nigeria's lack of foreign currency by imposing import restrictions,
which hampered production in Lagos in the 1980s.[69]

In March 1990, the Volkswagen Group decided to withdraw from the

Nigeria business. Negotiations on a sale to a Nigerian group of
companies, which began in 1992, failed to reach a conclusion because
of internal political power struggles. In 1994, Volkswagen withdrew the
last German employees. Since then, production has been at a standstill.
[70]
The district where the production plant was located is still called
"Volkswagen".

FESTAC 77
:
 Regatta on the occasion of
FESTAC 77 in Lagos 1977

From January to February 1977, the Second World Black and African
Festival of Arts and Culture (FESTAC) took place in Lagos (and in
Kaduna). FESTAC 77 is believed to be the largest cultural event held in
Africa in the 20th century. It included events and exhibitions on African
art, film, music, literature, dance and religion. The site on the Badagry
Expressway in the west of the city is still called "Festac town" today.

Visit of Jimmy Carter

From 31 March to 3 April 1977, the then US President Jimmy Carter
visited Lagos. To date, it is the only visit by a US president to the city
(as of 2023).[71]
:
 Not Nigeria’s capital anymore
In 1991, Ibrahim Babangida, the Military President and other
government functions moved to the newly built capital Abuja. This was
as a result of intelligence reports on the safety of his life and what was
later to be termed his hidden agenda, which was the plan to turn
himself into a civilian president. He finished what was started by the
Murtala/Obasanjo regime. The change resulted in Lagos losing some
prestige and economic leverage. However, Lagos remains the financial
center of the country, and also grew to become the most populous
conurbation in the country.[63]

New millennium

The rise of Nollywood

After 2000, the centre of the Nigerian film industry, commonly referred
to as Nollywood, developed in the Surulere district. Lagos itself has
since been the location and setting for many films. The 2016 film
"Captain America: Civil War" contains a scene set in Lagos.[72] The
:
 Spanish police series "La unidad" (2020 - 2023), the British drama
"The Last Tree" (2019) and the US-Spanish drama "The Way, Chapter
2" with Martin Sheen (2023 still in development) also use Lagos as a
filming location. The film "93 days" (2016) with Danny Glover is a
somewhat melodramatic but fact-based account of the 2014 Ebola
outbreak in Lagos and was filmed on original locations. Since the
success of the Nigerian thriller "The Figurine", Nigerian film has
increasingly focused on high-quality productions that are also
commercially successful. This in turn has led to ever new records in
box office takings in Nigeria (2009: "The Figurine", 2013: "Half of a
Yellow Sun", 2016: "The Wedding Party").[73][74]

Emergency situations
On 27 January 2002, explosions occurred at a barracks site in the city.
According to military sources, the cause was the spread of a fire from a
street market. It led to about 30 explosions in an ammunition depot,
which affected adjacent buildings. People fled in panic.[75] The disaster
emanating from the ammunition depot cost at least a thousand lives.
Many families were left homeless as their homes were destroyed.[76]
Impacts occurred within a seven-kilometre radius of the explosion site.
Many children drowned in a sewer as they fled.[77]
:
 In 2012, 163 people were killed when a McDonnell Douglas MD-83
crashed into a local furniture works and printing press building.[78]

On 1 November 2021, a 21-storey high-rise building under construction

in the affluent Ikoyi district collapsed (full article here). 44 people were
killed,[79] including the owner and the construction manager who were
investigating problems in the structure on site at the time of the
collapse. According to witnesses, a pillar on the first floor showed
cracks. The owner, Femi Osibona, demanded that the contractor
replaced this pillar with a new, intact one and offered the construction
workers breakfast for the extra work.[80] Shortly afterwards, the
building had collapsed. The building permit had only allowed 15 storeys
and the original contractor had withdrawn from the project a year
earlier because of the deliberate deviations from the building plan. For
example, after two identical buildings were built in close proximity, a
different concrete mix had been used.[81] - The construction disaster is
the largest of its kind in Lagos (as of 2023); multi-storey buildings
often collapse in the metropolis of Lagos, but the number of storeys
and fatalities are quite a bit lower than in the above case.

Narrow escape: Ebola in

Lagos
:
 On 20 July 2014, a traveller from Liberia infected with Ebola arrived at
the airport in Lagos and was diagnosed after being admitted to a
private hospital. This patient may have infected 72 people at the airport
and hospital. The patient died on 25 July; as of 24 September, there
were 19 laboratory-confirmed Ebola cases and one probable case in
two states, with 894 contacts identified and followed up as part of the
response. No new cases had emerged since 31 August, suggesting that
the Ebola outbreak in Nigeria may be contained. The rapidly
established Emergency Operations Centre, which used an Incident
Management System (IMS) to coordinate response and consolidate
decision-making, was instrumental in containing the outbreak in Nigeria
at an early stage and avoiding a disaster scenario.[82]

Tech Hub in Yaba,

Zuckerberg visit
On 30 August 2016, Mark Zuckerberg visited tech startups in the Yaba
district, in particular CcHUB and IT instructor Andela. During his
surprise visit, Zuckerberg spoke to children who are learning
programming languages during their summer holidays, among other
things.[83] In October 2017, Facebook established the first African SME
Council in Nigeria to support small and medium-sized enterprises.[84]
:
 Infrastructure measures
On 10 June 2021, Lagos received a standard gauge railway link with
Nigeria's third largest city, Ibadan, including a modern central station,
Mobolaji Johnson.[85] While other sub-Saharan African countries
continue to use or decommission railway networks from the colonial
era, Nigeria is expanding its rail network with Chinese assistance. In
2022, the Nigerian Railway Corporation reported profitable operation of
the Lagos-Ibadan line despite restrictions due to Covid epidemic.[86]

In January 2023, the new deep-sea port of Lekki was opened to relieve
traffic at the more centrally located but congested and shallower ports
of Apapa and Tin Can Island.[87]

On 4 September 2023, the first section, the blue line, of the Lagos
suburban railway went into operation.[88]

On 14 February 2024, Governor Sanwo-Olu announced that the Red

Line of the Lagos suburban railway between Agbado and Oyingbo
would be inaugurated on 29 February 2024 in the presence of Nigerian
President Tinubu.[89]
:
 Construction of a multi-
purpose arena
On 24 February 2024, the foundation stone was laid on Victoria Island
for a multi-purpose arena that will seat 12,000 and provide a suitable
stage for the booming entertainment industry.[90] Live Nation, Oak
View Group LLC, Persianas Group and the Nigerian Sovereign
Investment Authority (NSIA) formed a consortium to build the arena,
which is expected to be completed in December 2025. The arena will
host a range of activities from performances by international and
Nigerian music icons to family entertainment, basketball matches, UFC
fights, boxing matches, WWE shows and much more. The arena is set
to become Africa's leading venue for live entertainment. It will host 200
events a year.[91]

Obas (Kings) of Onim /

Lagos

Ashipa (1600–1630)
:
 King Ado (1630–1669) first King
of Lagos
King Gabaro (1669–1704)
King Akinsemoyin (1704–1749)
Eletu Kekere (1749)
King Ologun Kutere (1749–1775)
Adele Ajosun (1775-1780 &
1832-1834)
Eshilokun (1780–1819)
Oba Idewu Ojulari (1819–1832)
King Oluwole (1836–1841)
:
 King Akitoye (1841-1845 &
1851-1853)
Oba Kosoko (1845–1851)
King Dosunmu [Docemo]
(1853–1885)
Oba Oyekan I (1885–1900)
Oba Eshugbayi Eleko (1901-
1925 & 1932)
Oba Ibikunle Akitoye (1925–
1928)
Oba Sanusi Olusi (1928–1931)
:
 Oba Falolu Dosunmu (1932–
1949)
Oba Adeniji Adele (1949–1964)
Oba Adeyinka Oyekan II (1965–
2003)
Oba Rilwan Akiolu (2003–
present)

See also

Timeline of Lagos
Oba of Lagos
:
 References

1. "Lagos, Nigeria Metro Area

Population 1950-2022" (http
s://www.macrotrends.net/citi
es/22007/lagos/population) .
www.macrotrends.net.
Retrieved 2022-10-11.
2. Oluwole, Victor (2022-04-
14). "Top 10 wealthiest cities
in Africa" (https://africa.busin
essinsider.com/local/lifestyle/
top-10-wealthiest-cities-in-af
:
 top-10-wealthiest-cities-in-af
rica/2l5l5t4) . Business
Insider Africa. Retrieved
2022-10-11.
3. "LAGOS" (http://www.hubert
-herald.nl/NigeriaL.htm) .
www.hubert-herald.nl.
4. "Lagos" (https://www.britanni
ca.com/place/Lagos-Nigeri
a) . Encyclopædia Britannica.
Retrieved 15 February 2022.
5. Green 2020, pp. 309, 375.
6. Hutchison, Ray (2009).
:
 6. Hutchison, Ray (2009).
Encyclopedia of Urban
Studies (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=wKc5DQAA
QBAJ&pg=PA427) . SAGE.
p. 427. ISBN 978-1-412-
9143-21.
7. Peil, Margaret (1991). Lagos:
the city is the people (World
cities series) (https://books.g
oogle.com/books?id=Iy6FAA
AAIAAJ&q=Awori+Yoruba+in
+Lagos) . G.K. Hall. p. 5.
:
 +Lagos) . G.K. Hall. p. 5.
ISBN 978-0-816-1729-93.
8. Appiah, Anthony; Gates,
Henry Louis (2010).
Encyclopedia of Africa,
Volume 1 (https://books.goog
le.com/books?id=A0XNvklcq
bwC&pg=RA1-PA28) .
Oxford University Press.
p. 28. ISBN 978-0-195-
3377-09.
9. "Awori People: A brief history
and belief of the original
indigenes of Lagos" (https://
:
 indigenes of Lagos" (https://
www.pulse.ng/lifestyle/food-t
ravel/awori-people-a-brief-hi
story-and-belief-of-the-origi
nal-indigenes-of-lagos/chjn7
zt) . Pulse Nigeria. 2022-02-
09. Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20220306041
751/https://www.pulse.ng/life
style/food-travel/awori-peopl
e-a-brief-history-and-belief-
of-the-original-indigenes-of-l
agos/chjn7zt) from the
:
 original on 6 March 2022.
Retrieved 2022-03-12.
10. "Lagos | City, Population, &
History | Britannica" (https://
www.britannica.com/place/La
gos-Nigeria) .
www.britannica.com.
Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/2019060515543
1/https://www.britannica.co
m/place/Lagos-Nigeria)
from the original on 5 June
2019. Retrieved
:
 2019. Retrieved
2022-06-12.
11. Guardian, The (2017-05-29).
"Lagos History Lecture and
no man's land exponents" (ht
tps://guardian.ng/features/la
gos-history-lecture-and-no-
mans-land-exponents/) . The
Guardian Nigeria News -
Nigeria and World News.
Retrieved 2023-09-17.
12. Williams, Lizzie (2008).
Nigeria: The Bradt Travel
:
 Guide. Bradt Travel Guides.
ISBN 978-1841621241.
13. Sir Alan Burns (1929).
History of Nigeria, Lagos and
Benin (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=MB-yEAAAQB
AJ&pg=PT33) . Taylor &
Francis. ISBN 978-1-000-
85681-1.
14. Green 2020, p. 163.
15. "The Origin of Eko (Lagos)" (
http://www.edo-nation.net/ek
o.htm) . Edo Nation. Archived
:
 o.htm) . Edo Nation. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/we
b/20091002215402/http://
www.edo-nation.net/eko.htm)
from the original on 2
October 2009. Retrieved
2 June 2010.
16. "History Of Lagos" (https://o
nelagosfiesta.ng/history-of-la
gos/) . One Lagos Fiesta.
2016-07-10. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/202
20407112914/https://onelag
:
 20407112914/https://onelag
osfiesta.ng/history-of-lagos/)
from the original on 7 April
2022. Retrieved
2023-04-24.
17. "Lagos, Nigeria (Ca. 1350- )"
(https://www.blackpast.org/gl
obal-african-history/places-g
lobal-african-history/lagos-ni
geria-c-1350/) . 6 July 2010.
Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/2023050623431
8/https://www.blackpast.org/
global-african-history/places
:
 global-african-history/places
-global-african-history/lagos-
nigeria-c-1350/) from the
original on 6 May 2023.
Retrieved 21 May 2023.
18. "Lagos · Praia da Luz
Holidays" (https://www.luzhol
idays.com/sight/lagos/) .
Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/2023052111253
2/https://www.luzholidays.co
m/sight/lagos/) from the
original on 21 May 2023.
:
 original on 21 May 2023.
Retrieved 21 May 2023.
19. "Why the name: Lagos?" (htt
ps://afrolegends.com/2015/0
1/14/why-the-name-lagos/) .
14 January 2015. Archived (h
ttps://web.archive.org/web/2
0230521114040/https://afro
legends.com/2015/01/14/wh
y-the-name-lagos/) from the
original on 21 May 2023.
Retrieved 21 May 2023.
20. "LAGOS" (http://www.hubert
-herald.nl/NigeriaL.htm) .
:
 -herald.nl/NigeriaL.htm) .
Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/2019091108050
3/http://www.hubert-herald.n
l/NigeriaL.htm) from the
original on 11 September
2019. Retrieved 21 May
2023.
21. Green 2020, pp. 163, 181.
22. Green 2020, p. 309.
23. Green 2020, p. 375.
24. Green 2020, p. 473.
:
 25. Smith, Robert (January
1979). The Lagos Consulate
1851-1861. Macmillan. p. 2.
ISBN 9780520037465.
26. Howard Temperley,
"Beecroft, John (1790–
1854)", rev. Elizabeth
Baigent, Oxford Dictionary of
National Biography, Oxford
University Press, 2004
27. Gibson, J.W. "Duncan, John
(1805-1849)" (https://en.wik
isource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of
:
 isource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of
_National_Biography,_1885-1
900/Duncan,_John_(1805-1
849)) . Dictionary of National
Biography. Vol. 16. pp. 166–
167.
28. A. Adu Boahen (1985). Africa
Under Colonial Domination
1880-1935 (General history
of Africa) (https://books.goog
le.com/books?id=h-Tk_Zr5P
agC&pg=PA134) . Vol. 7.
Unesco. International
:
 Scientific Committee for the
Drafting of a General History
of Africa. p. 134. ISBN 978-
9-231-0171-31.
29. A. Adu Boahen (1985). Africa
Under Colonial Domination
1880-1935 (General history
of Africa) (https://books.goog
le.com/books?id=h-Tk_Zr5P
agC&pg=PA134) . Vol. 7.
Unesco. International
Scientific Committee for the
Drafting of a General History
:
 Drafting of a General History
of Africa. p. 134. ISBN 978-
9-231-0171-31.
30. Sir William M.N. Geary
(2013). Nigeria Under British
Rule (1927) (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=r-VkAgA
AQBAJ&pg=PT33) .
Routledge. pp. 24–28.
ISBN 978-1-136-9629-43.
31. Austen, R. (2009-04-01).
"Slavery and the Birth of an
African City: Lagos, 1760-
:
 1900, by Kristin Mann" (http
s://dx.doi.org/10.1093/afraf/a
dp004) . African Affairs. 108
(431): 328–329.
doi:10.1093/afraf/adp004 (ht
tps://doi.org/10.1093%2Fafra
f%2Fadp004) . ISSN 0001-
9909 (https://search.worldca
t.org/issn/0001-9909) .
32. "The Reduction of
Lagos:Introduction" (https://s
ilverflowseast.wordpress.co
m/the-reduction-of-lagos/ho
:
 m/the-reduction-of-lagos/ho
me/) . 25 March 2014.
Retrieved 1 February 2015.
33. "Lagos Colony" (https://www.
britishempire.co.uk/maproo
m/lagos.htm) .
www.britishempire.co.uk.
Retrieved 2023-07-15.
34. Smith, Robert (January
1979). The Lagos Consulate
1851-1861. Macmillan.
p. 121.
ISBN 9780520037465.
:
 35. Sir William M.N. Geary
(2013). Nigeria Under British
Rule (1927) (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=r-VkAgA
AQBAJ&pg=PT33) .
Routledge. pp. 24–28.
ISBN 978-1-136-9629-43.
36. Elebute, Adeyemo (2013).
The Life of James Pinson
Labulo Davies: A Colossus of
Victorian Lagos. Kachifo
Limited/Prestige. pp. 143–
145. ISBN 9789785205763.
:
 145. ISBN 9789785205763.
37. Anderson, David; Rathbone,
Richard (2000). Africa's
Urban Past (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=0IwMwB
Vfr0sC&pg=PA126) . James
Currey Publishers, 2000.
p. 126. ISBN 978-0-852-
5576-17.
38. L. Bigon (2009). A History of
Urban Planning in Two West
African Colonial Capitals:
Residential Segregation in
:
 Residential Segregation in
British Lagos and French
Dakar (1850-1930).
Lewiston, New York: Edwin
Mellen Press.
39. Agawu, Kofi (2014). "19th
century Lagos" (https://book
s.google.com/books?id=Pkp
pAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA12) .
Representing African Music:
Postcolonial Notes, Queries,
Positions. Routledge. p. 12.
ISBN 978-1-317-7940-66.
40. J. F. Ade Ajayi; Unesco.
:
 40. J. F. Ade Ajayi; Unesco.
International Scientific
Committee for the Drafting of
a General History of Africa
(1998). Africa in the
Nineteenth Century Until the
1880s (https://books.google.
com/books?id=VC7kKcXdDh
kC&pg=PA286) . Vol. 6.
University of California Press.
p. 286. ISBN 978-0-520-
0670-11.
41. "1914 - 2014 Colonial
:
 41. "1914 - 2014 Colonial
Footprints: Lagos, Then and
Now" (https://artsandculture.
google.com/story/LAUBxuvC
ARsA8A) . The Centenary
Project (Google Arts and
Culture). March 2014.
Retrieved 14 May 2016.
42. "WHKMLA : History of
Southern Nigeria, 1899-
1914" (https://www.zum.de/
whkmla/region/westafrica/so
uthernnigeria.html) .
www.zum.de. Retrieved
:
 www.zum.de. Retrieved
2023-07-15.
43. Steyn, Phia (2009). Oil
exploration in colonial Nigeria
in The Journal of Imperial and
Commonwealth History 37/2.
Routledge. pp. 249–274.
doi:10.1080/03086530903
010376 (https://doi.org/10.1
080%2F03086530903010
376) . hdl:1893/2735 (http
s://hdl.handle.net/1893%2F2
735) . ISSN 0308-6534 (htt
:
 ps://search.worldcat.org/iss
n/0308-6534) .
S2CID 159545684 (https://a
pi.semanticscholar.org/Corpu
sID:159545684) .
44. "Nigeria - Colonial History,
Economy, People |
Britannica" (https://www.brita
nnica.com/place/Nigeria/Nig
eria-as-a-colony) .
www.britannica.com.
Retrieved 2023-07-15.
45. Wheare, Joan (1950). The
:
 45. Wheare, Joan (1950). The
Nigerian Legislative Council.
London: Faber & Faber.
p. 265. OCLC 504865 (http
s://search.worldcat.org/oclc/
504865) .
46. "Nigeria & Sierra Leone -
Railway Wonders of the
World" (https://railwaywonde
rsoftheworld.com/nigeria.htm
l) .
railwaywondersoftheworld.co
m. Retrieved 2023-07-15.
:
 m. Retrieved 2023-07-15.
47. Miller, Nevil (1966). "Lagos
steam tramway and its unique
locomotives". The Railway
Magazine. 115: 103–106.
ISSN 0033-8923 (https://se
arch.worldcat.org/issn/0033
-8923) .
48. Williams, Lizzie (2008).
Nigeria: The Bradt Travel
Guide (https://books.google.
com/books?id=fwuQ71ZbaO
cC&pg=PA111) . Bradt Travel
Guides. p. 111. ISBN 978-1-
:
 Guides. p. 111. ISBN 978-1-
841-6223-92.
49. Ulrich, Hans F.; Lehrmann,
Ernst P. (2008).
Telecommunications
Research Trends (https://boo
ks.google.com/books?id=Ne
uZ0FHsWzkC&pg=PA144) .
Nova Publishers. p. 144.
ISBN 978-1-604-5615-86.
50. Noam, Eli M. (1999).
Telecommunications in Africa
(Global communications
:
 (Global communications
series) (https://books.google.
com/books?id=pAT9DUgX1H
wC&pg=PA163) . Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-
0-195-3562-74.
51. Olukoju, Ayodeji (2003).
Infrastructure Development
and Urban Facilities in Lagos,
1861-2000, "Chapter two.
Electricity supply in Lagos,
1898-2000". Institut français
de recherche en Afrique.
pp. 22–45. ISBN 979-1-
:
 pp. 22–45. ISBN 979-1-
09231222-5.
52. Oyelaran-Oyeyinka,
Rosamund (2011).
Governance and
Bureaucracy: Leadership in
Nigeria's Public Service.
VDM Verlag Dr. Müller.
ISBN 978-3-639-36307-4.
53. Segun, Segun (2008).
"Historical Background" (http
s://nairametrics.com/wp-cont
ent/uploads/2013/01/History
:
 ent/uploads/2013/01/History
-NPA.pdf) (PDF).
Nairametrics. Retrieved
2023-10-16.
54. Faleye, Olukayode A. (2019).
Schweizerische Gesellschaft
für Geschichte der Medizin
und der Naturwissenschaften
(ed.). "Beyond "White
Medicine": Bubonic Plague
and Health Interventions in
Colonial Lagos". Gesnerus.
76 (1). Basel: Schwabe: 90–
110. ISSN 0016-9161 (http
:
 110. ISSN 0016-9161 (http
s://search.worldcat.org/issn/
0016-9161) .
55. Davies, Peter N. (2000). The
Trade Makers: Elder
Dempster in West Africa,
1852-1972, 1973-1989
(2nd ed.). Liverpool
University Press, Liverpool,
UK. pp. 19–36. ISBN 978-0-
9681288-9-3.
56. "Nigeria & Sierra Leone -
Railway Wonders of the
:
 Railway Wonders of the
World" (https://railwaywonde
rsoftheworld.com/nigeria.htm
l) .
railwaywondersoftheworld.co
m. Retrieved 2023-10-16.
57. Churchill's Greatest Gamble -
How Britain Went All or
Nothing on Their SOE
Experiment (https://www.yout
ube.com/watch?v=GxtRSydK
rcE) , retrieved 2023-07-15
58. "Can Nigeria repeat the 1945
:
 general strike?" (https://guar
dian.ng/features/can-nigeria-
repeat-the-1945-general-stri
ke/) . The Guardian Nigeria
News - Nigeria and World
News. 2018-02-12.
Retrieved 2021-03-27.
59. Lindsay, Lisa A. (1999).
"Domesticity and Difference:
Male Breadwinners, Working
Women, and Colonial
Citizenship in the 1945
Nigerian General Strike" (http
:
 Nigerian General Strike" (http
s://www.jstor.org/stable/265
0988) . The American
Historical Review. 104 (3):
783–812.
doi:10.2307/2650988 (http
s://doi.org/10.2307%2F265
0988) . ISSN 0002-8762 (ht
tps://search.worldcat.org/iss
n/0002-8762) .
JSTOR 2650988 (https://ww
w.jstor.org/stable/2650988)
. PMID 19291892 (https://pu
bmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1929
:
 bmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1929
1892) .
60. Oyemakinde, Wale (1975).
"The Nigerian General Strike
of 1945" (https://www.jstor.o
rg/stable/41971222) .
Journal of the Historical
Society of Nigeria. 7 (4):
693–710. ISSN 0018-2540 (
https://search.worldcat.org/is
sn/0018-2540) .
JSTOR 41971222 (https://w
ww.jstor.org/stable/4197122
:
 ww.jstor.org/stable/4197122
2) .
61. Coates, Oliver (2018-09-
02). " 'His telegrams appear
to be hysterical, but he is very
astute': Azikiwe's spectacular
self and the 1945 General
Strike in Nigeria" (https://ww
w.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.
1080/13696815.2017.12869
69) . Journal of African
Cultural Studies. 30 (3):
227–242.
doi:10.1080/13696815.2017.
:
 doi:10.1080/13696815.2017.
1286969 (https://doi.org/10.1
080%2F13696815.2017.128
6969) . ISSN 1369-6815 (htt
ps://search.worldcat.org/iss
n/1369-6815) .
S2CID 152030129 (https://a
pi.semanticscholar.org/Corpu
sID:152030129) .
62. "2008 All Africa Media
Research Conference" (htt
p://www.pamro.org/pamro/2
008/PAMRO%20LOC%20W
:
 elcome%2014Aug08.PPT)
(PPT). Pan African Media
Research Organisation. p. 8.
Retrieved 4 April 2012.
63. "Lagos State Information" (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20
151109140122/http://nigeria
nstat.gov.ng/information/deta
ils/Lagos) . National Bureau
of Statistics. Archived from
the original (http://www.niger
ianstat.gov.ng/information/de
tails/Lagos) on 9 November
:
 tails/Lagos) on 9 November
2015. Retrieved 25 October
2015.
64. Draper, Robert; Hammond,
Robin (1 January 2015).
"Lagos Nigeria: Africa's First
city" (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20141223053916/htt
p://ngm.nationalgeographic.c
om/2015/01/lagos/draper-te
xt) . National Geographic.
Archived from the original (ht
tp://ngm.nationalgeographic.
:
 com/2015/01/lagos/draper-t
ext) on December 23, 2014.
Retrieved 18 April 2016.
65. "Band On The Run: 1973 -
McCartney Saved Career
With Album Made Under
Duress" (https://www.ibtime
s.com/band-run-40-years-a
go-paul-mccartney-saved-hi
s-career-album-made-under
-duress-nigeria-1346223) .
International Business Times.
2013-07-16. Retrieved
:
 2013-07-16. Retrieved
2023-09-15.
66. Naija, JoJo (2021-10-28).
" 'Cement Armada' Affair:
How The Gowon Regime
Flooded Lagos Port With
Cements" (https://jojonaija.co
m/cement-armada-affair-ho
w-the-gowon-regime-floode
d-lagos-port-with-cement
s/) . Jojo Naija. Retrieved
2023-07-15.
67. "Legacies of the Cement
:
 Armada" (https://www.histor
y.org.uk/publications/resourc
e/10169/legacies-of-the-ce
ment-armada) . The
Historical Association. 2021-
08-20. Retrieved
2023-07-15.
68. Marwah, Hanaan (2020-05-
18). "Untangling government,
market, and investment
failure during the Nigerian oil
boom: the Cement Armada
scandal 1974–1980" (https://
:
 scandal 1974–1980" (https://
www.tandfonline.com/doi/ful
l/10.1080/00076791.2018.1
458839) . Business History.
62 (4): 566–587.
doi:10.1080/00076791.2018
.1458839 (https://doi.org/10.
1080%2F00076791.2018.14
58839) . ISSN 0007-6791 (h
ttps://search.worldcat.org/iss
n/0007-6791) .
S2CID 158188922 (https://a
pi.semanticscholar.org/Corpu
sID:158188922) .
:
 sID:158188922) .
69. "1973 bis 1981" (https://ww
w.volkswagen-group.com/de/
volkswagen-chronik-17351/1
973-bis-1981-17358) .
Volkswagen Group (in
German). 2023-06-16.
Retrieved 2023-09-15.
70. "1982 bis 1991" (https://ww
w.volkswagen-group.com/de/
volkswagen-chronik-17351/1
982-bis-1991-17359) .
Volkswagen Group (in
:
 Volkswagen Group (in
German). 2023-06-16.
Retrieved 2023-09-15.
71. "Nigeria - Travels of the
President - Travels -
Department History - Office
of the Historian" (https://histo
ry.state.gov/departmenthistor
y/travels/president/nigeria) .
history.state.gov. Retrieved
2023-10-16.
72. Deyveed (2016-08-06).
"Nigerian Architecture Worth
Seeing: The Civic Centre,
:
 Seeing: The Civic Centre,
Victoria Island, Lagos" (http
s://thadopestarchitectblog.w
ordpress.com/2016/08/06/b
log-post-title-2/) .
ThaDopestArchitect.
Retrieved 2023-07-15.
73. Ademola, Bisi (2023-06-20).
"Nollywood: Blockbusters To
Streaming Success | African
Folder" (https://africanfolder.
com/nollywood-streaming-su
ccess/) . Retrieved
:
 ccess/) . Retrieved
2023-07-15.
74. Matt (2023-06-12). "7 Best
Nigerian Movies: A
Celebration of Nollywood
Cinema • Filmmaking
Lifestyle" (https://filmlifestyle.
com/best-nigerian-movies/) .
Filmmaking Lifestyle.
Retrieved 2023-07-15.
75. AG, VADIAN NET. "Nach
Explosionen herrscht in
Lagos das Chaos" (https://w
ww.news.ch/Nach+Explosion
:
 ww.news.ch/Nach+Explosion
en+herrscht+in+Lagos+das+
Chaos/101006/detail.htm,%2
0https://m.news.ch/Nach+Ex
plosionen+herrscht+in+Lago
s+das+Chaos/101006/detail.
htm) . www.news.ch (in
German). Retrieved
2023-07-15.
76. "Stammesfehde: Mindestens
100 Tote bei Unruhen in
Nigeria" (https://www.faz.net/
aktuell/gesellschaft/stammes
:
 aktuell/gesellschaft/stammes
fehde-mindestens-100-tote-
bei-unruhen-in-nigeria-1500
01.html) . FAZ.NET (in
German). 2002-02-05.
ISSN 0174-4909 (https://sea
rch.worldcat.org/issn/0174-4
909) . Retrieved
2023-07-15.
77. JOHNSON, DOMINIC
(2002-02-05). "In Lagos
bleibt die Stimmung explosiv"
(https://taz.de/!1127352/) .
Die Tageszeitung: taz (in
:
 Die Tageszeitung: taz (in
German). p. 10. ISSN 0931-
9085 (https://search.worldca
t.org/issn/0931-9085) .
Retrieved 2023-07-15.
78. "Crash of a McDonnell
Douglas MD-83 in Lagos:
159 killed | Bureau of Aircraft
Accidents Archives" (https://
www.baaa-acro.com/crash/cr
ash-mcdonnell-douglas-md-
83-lagos-159-killed) .
www.baaa-acro.com.
:
 www.baaa-acro.com.
Retrieved 2023-07-14.
79. Ikoyi Building Collapse: 44
Bodies Recovered, 15
Rescued From 21-Storey
Debris (https://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=3-v1nJPWlo
w) , retrieved 2023-09-13
80. "How Owner Of Collapsed
21-Storey Ikoyi Building,
Engineers Caused Disaster—
Survivor | Sahara Reporters"
(https://saharareporters.com/
2021/11/11/how-owner-colla
:
 2021/11/11/how-owner-colla
psed-21-storey-ikoyi-building
-engineers-caused-disaste
r%E2%80%94-survivor#:~:t
ext=The%20owner%20of%2
0the%20house,we%20wer
e%20working%20on%20i
t.%E2%80%9D) .
saharareporters.com.
Retrieved 2023-09-13.
81. "ShieldSquare Captcha" (http
s://iopscience.iop.org/article/
10.1088/1742-6596/1378/4/
:
 10.1088/1742-6596/1378/4/
042022/pdf) .
doi:10.1088/1742-
6596/1378/4/042022/pdf (h
ttps://doi.org/10.1088%2F17
42-6596%2F1378%2F4%2F
042022%2Fpdf) . {{cite
journal}}: Cite journal
requires |journal= (help)
82. Shuaib, Faisal; Gunnala,
Rajni; Musa, Emmanuel O.;
Mahoney, Frank J.;
Oguntimehin, Olukayode;
Nguku, Patrick M.; Nyanti,
:
 Nguku, Patrick M.; Nyanti,
Sara Beysolow; Knight,
Nancy; Gwarzo, Nasir Sani;
Idigbe, Oni; Nasidi,
Abdulsalam; Vertefeuille,
John F.; Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention
(CDC) (2014-10-03). "Ebola
virus disease outbreak -
Nigeria, July-September
2014" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.
nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC45
84877) . MMWR. Morbidity
and Mortality Weekly Report.
: