Machining

Level – I
Based on March ,2022 Curriculum Version 1

Module Title: - Perform General Workshop Machining

Module code: IND MAC1 M 05 0322
Nominal duration: 80 Hours
Prepared by: Ministry of Labour and Skill

August , 2022
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

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Acknowledgment

Ministry of Labor and Skills wish to extend thanks and appreciation to the many representatives
of TVET instructors and respective industry experts who donated their time and expertise to the
development of this Teaching, Training and Learning Materials (TTLM).

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Contents
Acknowledgment.............................................................................................................................2

Contents...........................................................................................................................................3

Introduction to the Module..............................................................................................................4

Unit one: plan job requirements.....................................................................................................6

1.1 Work Requirements...............................................................................................................6

1.2 .Machine And Tools..............................................................................................................8

1.2.1 Drilling Machine............................................................................................................8

1.2.2. Lathe Machine.............................................................................................................13

1.2.3 Power Hacksaw Machine.............................................................................................17

1.2.4 Milling Machine...........................................................................................................18

1.2.5 Planning And Shaping..................................................................................................21

1.3 Sequence of operations....................................................................................................25

Self check-1...................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Unit two : Set-up machine...........................................................................................................30

2.1 Inspect and sharpen tools.....................................................................................................31

2.2 Mount and position tools.....................................................................................................37

2.3 guards and accessories.........................................................................................................41

2.4 Cutting Speeds, RPM, Feeds and Depth of cuts..................................................................50

2.5 Setup Operations..................................................................................................................52

Self check-2...................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Unit Three : Perform machine operations..................................................................................57

3.1 Work holding devices..........................................................................................................58

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 3.2 Operate machine.................................................................................................................75

3.3 Machine Parameters.............................................................................................................95

3.3.1 Feed:.............................................................................................................................95

3.3.2 Cutting speed................................................................................................................95

3.3.3Depth of cut...................................................................................................................95

3.4 Safety Procedures................................................................................................................98

Self-Check -3...............................................................................................................................103

Operation sheet 3.1. Perform machine operations.......................................................................107

Lap Test.......................................................................................................................................109

Unit Four : Quality assure finished component.......................................................................111

4.1 Check Components............................................................................................................111

4.2 Measuring Tools And Equipment......................................................................................113

4.3 Handle deviations..............................................................................................................122

4.4 Routine Maintenance And Adjustments............................................................................126

Self check-4...................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

Operation sheet 4.1: Quality assure finished component...............Error! Bookmark not defined.

Operation sheet 4.1: Quality assure finished component...............Error! Bookmark not defined.

Lap Test.........................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

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Introduction To The Module
In machining filed:- Machining is a manufacturing process in which a sharp cutting tool
is used to cut away material to leave the desired part shape. Machining is one of the most
important manufacturing processes. To perform the operation, relative motion is required
between the tool and work. This relative motion is achieved in most machining operations by
means of a primary motion, called the cutting speed, and a secondary motion, called the feed.
The shape of the tool and its penetration into the work surface, combined with these motions,
produces the desired geometry of the resulting work surface.
This module is designed to meet the industry requirement under the machining
occupational standard, particularly for the unit of competency: Perform General Workshop
Machining.
This module covers the units :
plan job requirements
Set-up machine
machine operations
Assure Quality
Learning Objective of the Module
Determine plan job requirements
Set-up machine
machine operations
Assure Quality for finished component
Module Instruction
For effective use this modules trainees are expected to follow the following module instruction:
Read the information written in each unit
Accomplish the Self-checks at the end of each unit
Perform Operation Sheets which were provided at the end of units
Do the “LAP test” giver at the end of each unit and
Read the identified reference book for Examples and exercise

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Unit one: plan job requirements
This unit is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following content
coverage and topics:
 Work requirements
 Machine And Tools
o Drilling Machine
o Lathe Machine
o Milling Machine
 Sequence Of Operations

This unit will also assist you to attain the learning outcomes stated in the cover page.
Specifically, upon completion of this learning guide, you will be able to:
 Analyze and select Work requirements
 Select Appropriate machine and tools
o Drilling Machine
o Lathe Machine
o Milling Machine
 Determining sequence of operations

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1.1 Work Requirements
Work instructions and drawings/diagrams
A work instruction is a tool provided to help someone to do a job correctly. A Work Instruction
is the most detailed description of a task. Its purpose is to explain step by step how to do a
specific task or work. Work instructions are key to reducing variation, allowing manufacturers to
improve quality and meet demand.
Working drawings/Diagrams
The term working drawing is used to describe the complete set of drawing information
needed for the machining and assembly of a product based on its design. An essential element of
a working drawing is the parts list, or bill of materials (abbreviated BOM).
A working drawing is a drawing or set of drawings produced by the designer,
manufacturer, or fabricator. Shop drawings are typically required for prefabricated components.
The working drawing normally shows more detail.
The primary role or function of working drawings is to convert design data into finished part
information and to clearly communicate that information to building industry, code officials,
product manufacturers, suppliers and fabricators.
Assembly drawings can be used to represent items that consist of more than one component. ...
Assembly drawings may include instructions, lists of the component parts, reference numbers,
and references to detail drawings or shop drawings, and specification information.
It helps streamline the manufacturing process. The precise details of the technical drawing helps
builders create objects without errors, delays or other costly issues. This alone is the most
important duty of the drawings.
Working drawings will develop in detail from block and massing drawings and sketches to very
detailed technical drawings describing every component in a way that will enable them to be
constructed and operated.
1.4 FACTORS DETERMINING JOB REQUIREMENTS
1. Materials to be used
2. Surface finished required
3. Tolerance to be allowed

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 4. Quantity of units
5. Scale of drawing
6. Name of the object and how it is used
7. Types of drawings

1.2 .Machine And Tools

Introduction
Machining is a manufacturing process in which a sharp cutting tool is used to cut away
material to leave the desired part shape. Machining is one of the most important manufacturing
processes. To perform the operation, relative motion is required between the tool and work. This
relative motion is achieved in most machining operations by means of a primary motion, called
the cutting speed, and a secondary motion, called the feed. The shape of the tool and its
penetration into the work surface, combined with these motions, produces the desired geometry
of the resulting work surface.

1.2.1 Drilling Machine

Drilling is a process of producing round holes in a solid material or enlarging existing holes with
the use of multi tooth cutting tools called drills or drill bits. Various cutting tools are available
for drilling, but the most common is the twist drill.
Drilling machines, also called drill presses, cut holes in metal with a twist drill. They also use a
variety of other cutting tools to perform the following basic hole-machining operations: (1)
reaming, (2) boring, (3) counter boring, (4) countersinking, and (5) tapping internal threads with
the use of a tapping attachment.
Drilling is an operation of producing circular hole by using drill bits. The drilling operation
accomplished by Drilling machine, lathe in which the drill is held in tailstock and the work is
held by the chuck. The most common drill used is the twist drill.

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Figure 1:0:1 Drilling Machine

1.4.1 Parts of drilling machine

Spindle: the spindle holds the drill or cutting tools and revolves in a fixed position in a sleeve.
Column: the column is cylindrical in shape and built strong and solid. The column supports the
head and the sleeve or quill assembly.
Head: The head of the drilling machine is composed of the sleeve, a spindle, an electric motor
and feed mechanism. The head is bolted to the column.
Worktable: The worktable is supported on an arm mounted to the column. The worktable can be
adjusted vertically to accommodate different heights of work or it can be swung completely out
of the way. It may be tilted up to 90 degree in either direction, to allow long pieces to be end or
angle drilled.
Base: The base of the drilling machine supports the entire machine and when bolted to the floor,
provides for vibration-free operation and best machining accuracy. The top of the base is similar
to the worktable and may be equipped with T- slot for mounting work too large for the table.
Cutting conditions in drilling
The twist drill is a cutting tool with two symmetrical opposite cutting edges, each removing part
of the material in the form of chip.

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 Figure 1:0:2 Basics of a drilling operation

2.3.2 Cutting velocity V in drilling is not a constant along the major cutting edge as opposed
to the other Machining operations. It is zero at the center of the twist drill, and has a maximum
value at the drill Corner. The maximum cutting speed is given by
V = πDN
Where D is the drill diameter, and N is the rotational speed of the drill.
2.3.3 Types of drilling machine
Portable drilling machine
Bench drilling machine
Up-Right Drilling Machine
Radial drilling machine
Pillar drilling machine
Gang drilling machine
Multiple drilling machine

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Drill press
Although a hand drill is commonly used for drilling of small holes, a drill press is preferable
when the location and orientation of the hole must be controlled accurately. A drill press is
composed of a base that supports a column; the column in turn supports a table. Work can be
supported on the table with a vise or hold down clamps, or the table can be swiveled out of the
way to allow tall work to be supported directly on the base. Height of the table can be adjusted
with a table lift crank than locked in place with a table lock. The column also supports a power
head containing a motor. The motor turns the spindle at a speed controlled by a variable speed
control dial. The spindle holds a
Drill chuck to hold the cutting tools (drill bits, center drills, reamers, etc.).The machine tool
described is a typical upright drill press. The smaller modifications, mounted on a table rather
than the floor are known as bench drills.

Figure 1:0:3 Bench Type Drilling Machine

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 Figure 1:0:4 Upright Drill

Figure 1.0:5 Pillar Drill Machine

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This is the largest drill press designed to drill up to 100-mm diameter holes in large work parts. It
has a radial arm along which the drilling head can be moved and clamped.

Figure 1:0:6 Basics of a drilling operation

Figure 0:7 Radial Drill Machine

CARE OF DRILLING MACHINES
Lubrication is important because of the heat and friction generated by the moving parts. Follow
the manufacturer’s manual for proper lubrication methods. Clean each machine after use. Clean
T-slots. Grooves. And dirt from belts and pulleys. Remove chips to avoid damage to moving
parts. Wipe all spindles and sleeves free of grit to avoid damaging the precision fit. Put a light
coat of oil on all unpainted surfaces to prevent rust. Operate all machines with care to avoid
overworking the electric motor.

1.2.2. Lathe Machine

The lathe removes undesired material from a rotating work piece in the form of chips with the
help of a cutting tool which is traversed across the work and can be feed deep in work. The lathe
is a versatile machine tool in which the work is held and rotated. A cutting tool is moved along
the work to produce cylindrical shapes (turning) or across the work to form flat surfaces (facing).
The lathe machine is used principally for shaping of metal (and sometimes wood or other
materials). The basic lathe that was designed to cut cylindrical part, to produce screw threads,

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tapered work, drill holes, knurled surfaces, and crankshafts and etc. Various designs and
constructions of lathe have been developed to suit different Machining conditions and usage.
TYPES OF LATHE MACHINE
Speed Lathe: it is so named because of the very high speed of the headstock spindle
Engine Lathe: the most important machine tool in the lathe machines and by far most widely
used.
Turret Lathe: it is a production used to perform a large number of operation simultaneously
Bench Lathe: a small lathe which can be mounted on the work bench for doing small precision
and light jobs.
The five Major Parts of Lathe Machine
The Bed
The Headstock
The Tailstock
The Carriage
The Feed Mechanism

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 Figure 1:0:8 Lathe Machine and Parts

BED: The bed is the part of the lathe that provides support for the other components. It is the
foundation on which all the other parts are fitted.
HEADSTOCK: The headstock is the lathe feature that provides the means of holding and
rotating the work accurately.
TAILSTOCK: The tailstock is used mainly to support the right hand end of the work. It may be
moved and clamped in position along the bed.
CARRIAGE: The carriage is the lathe that provides the method of holding and moving the
cutting tool accurately. It consists of two major parts:
Apron
Saddle

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Saddle is the part of the carriage that fits across and moves along the bed, between the head and
tailstock. The cross slide is mounted on top of the saddle and provides a cross movement for the
cutting tool. The slide is at right angles to the bed and is moved by means of a screwed spindle
fitted with a handle.
The compound rest is fitted on top and to the front of the cross slide. The compound rest may be
swiveled horizontally through 360.The top slide is fitted on top of the compound rest. It
provides a means of supporting the tool post, which holds the cutting tool. The top slide provides
a limited horizontal movement for the cutting tool. By swiveling the compound rest, the top slide
may be set an angle to the cross slide. Normally the compound rest is set so that the top slide is at
the right angles to the cross slide.
Apron is bolted to the front of the saddle. It contains the mechanism for moving and controlling
the carriage.
FEED MECHANISM
Most center lathes have some form of power feed mechanism to provide automatic movement to
the cutting tool. Power feed can be applied to both the saddle and cross slid
Quick Change Box
This box provides a means of changing the speed of the feed shaft. The rate of feed can be varied
in relation to the revolutions of the work to suit different materials and operations.
Feed Shaft: Power is transmitted from the rear end of the headstock spindle through the quick
change gear box to the feed shaft located at the front of the lathe bed.
LEAD SCREW: Center lathes equipped with power feed also have provision for screw cutting.
A special threaded spindle is mounted on the front of the lathe bed adjacent to the feed shaft. It is
driven through the quick change gear box. Both the lead screw and the feed shaft pass through
the apron of the carriage. Controls on the apron enable the feed shaft or the lead screw to be
connected to the carriage.
Feed engagement Lever
When the feed lever is engaged, power is connected from the feed shaft to the saddle and cross
slide. This provides automatic feeding for facing and turning.
Lead Screw Engagement Lever

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The lead screw is connected and released from the carriage by means of half nuts. The lead
screw engagement lever on the apron operates the half nuts. These nuts are halved to enable the
lead screw to be engaged or disengaged easily.
An interlocking mechanism between the levers prevents the lead screw and the feed shaft from
being engaged at the same time. The arrangement of gears in the feed drive mechanism provides
a means of reversing the direction of rotation of the feed shaft and the lead screw.

1.2.3 Power Hacksaw Machine

All power hacksaw machines are basically similar in design. Figure 6-1 shows a typical power
hacksaw and identifies its main parts, which are discussed below.
Base
The base of the saw usually contains a coolant reservoir and a pump for conveying the coolant to
the work. The reservoir contains baffles which cause the chips to settle to the bottom of the tank.
A table which supports the vise and the metal being sawed is located on top of the base and is
usually referred to as part of the base.
Vise
The vise is adjustable so that various sizes and shapes of metal may be held. On some machines
the vise may be swiveled so that stock may be sawed at an angle. The size of a power hacksaw is
determined by the largest piece of metal that can be held in the vise and sawed.
Frame
The frame of the saw supports and carries the hacksaw blade. The machine is designed so that
the saw blade contacts the work only on the cutting stroke. This action prevents
unnecessary wear on the saw blade. The cutting stroke is on the draw or back stroke.

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 Figure 1:0:9 Power Hacksaw Machine

1.2.4 Milling Machine

Milling machine is one of the most versatile conventional machine tools with a wide range of
metal cutting capability Milling machines are machine tools used to rotate single or multiple
cutting edges and removes metal when work is feed against a rotating cutter .Functions of
Milling machine capable of machining flat or contoured surfaces, slots, grooves, recesses
threads, gears, spirals and other configurations
Milling machines are available in a variety of designs that can be classified as the following: (1)
standard knee-and-column machines, including the horizontal and the vertical types; (2) bed-type
or manufacturing machines; and (3) machines designed for special milling jobs.
Types of Milling Machine
Milling machine may be grouped into two large families:-
Fixed bed type milling machine:-are characterized by very rigid work table construction and
support. The work moves only longitudinal direction.
It is sub grouped in two;-
Horizontal ,
Vertical and
Planer type
B. Column and knee type milling machine:-the parts that provide movements to the work
consists of a column that support and guides the knee in vertical movements But both group are
made with horizontal and vertical spindle
There are three basic types of Knee and column type MM

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Plane (horizontal spindle) MM:-
Contains the drive motor and gearing and a fixed position HMM spindle.
The work table on this machine has three movements vertical ,cross and longitudinal or (z ,y & x
axis)
The plain horizontal milling machine’s column contains the drive motor and gearing and a fixed
position horizontal milling machine spindle. An adjustable overhead arm containing one or more
arbor supports projects forward from the top of the column. The arm and arbor supports are used
to stabilize long arbors. Supports can be moved along the overhead arm to support the arbor
where support is desired depending on the position of the milling cutter or cutters.

Figure 1:0:10 Milling Machine And parts

Column: the column houses the spindle, the bearings, the gear box, the clutches, the shafts, the
pumps, and the shifting mechanisms for transmitting power from the electric motor to the spindle
at a selected speed.

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Knee is mounted in front of the column is for supporting the table and to provide an up or down
motion along the Z axis.
Saddle is consists of two sideways, one on the top and one at the bottom located at 90º to each
other, for providing motions in the X or Y axes by means of lead screws.
Table is mounted on top of the saddle and can be moved along the X axis. On top of the table are
some T-slots for the mounting of work piece or clamping fixtures.
Arbor is an extension of the spindle for mounting cutters. Usually, the thread end of an arbor is
of left hand helix.
Swivel table housing - is fastened to saddle on a universal milling machine, enables the table to
be swiveled 450 to either side of the center line.
Feed dial- is used to regulate the table feeds.
The spindle - provides the drive for arbors, cutters and attachments used on a milling machine.
Over arm - provides correct alignment and support of the arbor and various attachments.
Arbor support - is fitted to the over arm and can be clamped at any location on the over arm.
Spindle speed dial - is set by a crank that is turned to regulate the spindle speed
Universal (horizontal spindle) MM:- It is similar to the Plane (horizontal spindle) MM but have
table to swing up to 45° in either direction for angular and helical milling operations
Universal milling machine is a milling machine having a table fitted with all motions and a
dividing head with change gears so that it can perform any type of milling operation.
The basic difference between a universal horizontal milling machine and a plain horizontal
milling machine is the addition of table swivel housing between the table and the saddle of the
universal machine. This permits the table to swing up to 45° in either direction for angular and
helical milling operations. The universal machine can be fitted with various attachments such as
the indexing fixture, rotary table, slotting and rack cutting attachments, and various special
fixtures.
c) Vertical spindle MM: - differ from other type of MM by having the cutter spindle in a
vertical position or at right angle to the work .It also include
A swivel head MM:-Spindle can be swiveled for angular cut
Sliding head MM:-The head can be moved in vertical position

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The rotary head MM :- Spindle can move vertically in a circular line
A vertical milling machine which is of similar construction to a horizontal milling machine
except that the spindle is mounted in the vertical position.

.Methods of controlling MM
Manual:- All movement are made hand lever control
Semi-automatic :- movements are controlled by hand and /or by power feed
Fully Automatic :- A complex hydraulic feed arrangements follow two or three dimensional
templates to guide the cutter automatic

1.2.5 Planning And Shaping

Planning and shaping are similar operations, which differ in the kinematics of the
process. Planning is a machining operation in which the primary cutting motion is performed by
the work piece and feed motion is imparted to the cutting tool. In shaping, the primary motion is
performed by the tool, and feed by the work piece:

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 Figure 1:0:11 kinematics of shaping and planing

The cutting conditions in planning and shaping are illustrated in the figure. Only
the shaping operation is portrayed but the cutting conditions are essentially the same and for
planning:

Figure 1:0:12 cutting conditions

Cutting velocity V in planning is linear and constant along the cutting path. In shaping, the
picture is more complicated. The cutting tool is held in the tool post mounted in the ram, which
reciprocates over the work with a forward stroke, cutting at velocity V and a quick return stroke
at higher velocity. The cutting velocity is therefore not constant along the cutting path. It
increases from zero to maximum in the beginning of the stroke and gradually decreases to zero at
theend of the stroke. The cutting speed V is assumed to be twice the average forwarded ram
velocity.

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Feed f in planning and shaping is in mm per stroke and is at right angles to the cutting direction.
Depth of cut d is defined as usual as the distance between the work and machined surfaces.
Shapers
Shapers are used to produce primarily flat surfaces by means of single or multiple cutting tools.
Shapers use a reciprocating motion
For ward stroke (cutting motion)
Backward stroke (non cutting stroke)
The size of the shaper is determined by the largest cube which it can machine. For example, a
300mm shaper can machine 300mm x 300mm x 300mm.
Use of Shaper operations
flat surfaces,
a block square and parallel,
angular surfaces,
Serrating - operation performed on a surface to form a series of equally spaced grooves, which
are often used on wide jaws, plates, washers and other parts that are intended to provide a good
grip
Main parts of shaper
Frame.
Ram moves in adjustable slide rails. The stroke length and position can be adjusted.
Cross-rail- It is itself adjustable side rails and carries the table on horizontal slide rails.
Table has T-slots and holes to clamp works piece. The setting motion is vertical and the feed
motion is horizontal.
Main gear box - The rotary movement of the motor is transmitted the crank gear by change-over
gear box (3 to 8 r.pm). The direction of motion is changed by a crank and rocker
2.3 Types of shapers
The most common type of shaper is horizontal shaper they can be:
Mechanically driven (crank and rocker)
Hydraulically driving (cylinder and piston
Principle of the crank-type shaper

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There are several mechanical methods of driving the reciprocating shaper ram, the crank-type
being the most commonly used
The quick return of the ram of the back or non-cutting stroke is obtained when the crank pin is
traveling through 140 degree of the cycle.
The crank pin will pass through 220 degree of the cycle during the cutting stroke or forward
stroke.
The direction of motion is changed by a crank and rocker
The motor drives the crank wheel (driving wheel) over the main gear box. The crank is seated in
the drilling wheel and can be shifted radially. This carries with it the sliding block which guides
in the rocker arm and sets its’ reciprocating motion.
. The crank pin runs in its circular path at uniform speed.
It must travel a longer distance in its working stroke a (longer time), and
a shorter distance in the return stroke b (less time), the speed is alternately higher and lower. The
longer the stroke the greater is the difference in speeds
Changing the stroke length
If the crank pin is drawn away from the center of the wheel, it describes a crank circle of greater
radius, and the rocker arm swings through a greater distance, the stroke becomes longer
Analogously, if it is drawn towards the center of the wheel, a shorter stroke results.
Changing the stroke position must be set to match the position of the work piece.

Figure 1:0:13 parts of shaper

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 Figure 1:0:14 principle of the crank type shaper

1.3 Sequence of operations

Introduction to sequence of operations

Sequencing refers to the order in which activities occur in the operations process. But there are a
lot of operations are performed by different machines such as;
Operation on lathe machine Facing, Turning, Chamfering, Grooving, Forming, Knurling,
Undercutting, Eccentric turning, Taper turning, Thread cutting, Drilling, Reaming, Boring,
Tapping and etc. these operation are depend on one another.

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 Figure 1:0:15 Lathe operation

Common lathe operations:

1. Facing 2. Plain turning 3. Step turning
4. Drilling 5. Boring 6. Reaming
7. Under cutting or grooving 8. Threading 9. Knurling
10. Forming 11.Taper turning
Drilling operation

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 Figure 1:0:16 Drill Operations

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Self-check-1
Direction I choose the best answer
1. The assembly which consists of saddle, cross-slide, compound slide and tool post is
A A. headstock B. tailstock C. bed D. carriage
2. In a milling machine, cutters are mounted on
A. column B. spindle C. overhanging arm D. arbor
3. One part of the milling machine it is fitted to the over arm and can be clamped at any
location on the over arm
A. Arbor support B. Spindle C. cross- slide D. Column
4. One is not parts of engine lathe
A. Headstock, a tailstock,
B. A carriage
C. A bed upon which the tailstock and carriage move.
D. Tool post
E. Grinding wheel
5. One of the following is not properties of tail Stock
A. The tail stock consists of the upper and lower tail stock castings can be adjusted for
taper or parallel turning by two screws set in the base.
B. The tail stock can be locked in any position along the bed of the lathe
C. The tail stock spindle has an internal taper to receive the dead center, or live center
D. The tail stock provides support for the right hand end of the work
E. All of the above
6. One is not the main parts of carriage

A. Compound rest D. Apron

B. The saddle E. Headstock
C. Cross-slide,

7. One properties of lead screw.

A. The lead screw is used for thread cutting

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 B. Along its length are accurately cut acme (highest) threads which engage the threads of the
half-nuts in the apron when the half-nuts are clamped over it.
C. When the lead screw turns inside the closed half-nuts, the carriage moves along the ways
a distance equal to the lead of the thread
D. All of the above

Directions 2: Match the term in column A with the term in column B

A B
1. used to of producing holes and enlarging existing holes A. The lathe machine
2. removes material from a rotating work piece in the form B. Milling machines
of chips.
3. rotate single or multiple cutting edges and removes metal C. Planning and shaping
4. Process are differ in the kinematics operation. D. Drilling a machine

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Unit two: Set-up machine
This unit is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following content
coverage and topics:
 Inspect and sharpen tools
 Mount and position tools
 guards and accessories
 cutting speeds, RPM, feeds and depth of cuts
 setup operations

This unit will also assist you to attain the learning outcomes stated in the cover page.
Specifically, upon completion of this learning guide, you will be able to:
 Inspect and sharpen tools
 Mount and position tools
 Set and adjust guards and accessories
 Calculate cutting speeds, RPM, feeds and depth of cuts
 Perform setup operations

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2.1 Inspect and sharpen tools
Cutting tools Terminology and Tool Geometry
• For cutting tools, geometry depends mainly on the properties of the tool material and the work
material.
• The standard terminology is shown in the following figure. For single point tools, the most
important angles are the rake angles and the end and side relief angles
RAKE ANGLE
Rake angle is the angle between the top face of the tool and the normal to the work surface at the
cutting edge
• A large rake angle will improve cutting action, but would lead to early tool failure, since the
tool wedge angle is relatively weak
. The back rake angle affects the ability of the tool to shear the work material and form the chip.
It can be positive, negative or neutral
• Positive rake angles reduce the cutting forces resulting in smaller deflections of the work piece,
tool holder, and machine.
• If the back rake angle is too large, then strength of the tool is reduced as well as its capacity to
conduct heat.
• In machining hard work materials, the back rake angle must be small, even negative for carbide
and diamond tools.
• The higher the hardness, the smaller the back rake angle.
• For high-speed steels, back rake angle is normally chosen in the positive range.
. Side rake must be given to the tool point, to provide the
correct cutting angle for the material being machined
. Negative rake is when the top surface of the tool is inclined at an angle above the center-line of
the work. It employed with success when machining the harder bronze alloys.

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 Table 2..2 Typical value for top rake angle

Figure 2.1 Main Features of a Single Point Cutting Tool

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 Figure 2.2 single point cutting tool terminology and tool geometry

Clearance Angle
• Clearance angle is the angle between the flank or front face of the tool and a tangent to the
work surface originating at the cutting edge.
• All cutting tools must have clearance to allow cutting to take place.
• Clearance should be kept to a minimum, as excessive clearance angle will not improve cutting
efficiency and will merely weaken then tool.
• Typical value for front clearance angle is 6° in external turning
. Side clearance must be given to allow the tool to cut or the tool will rub on the work.
. Front clearance must also be given to the tool in order to provide a satisfactory cutting angle.
Angle of relief
This is needed to prevent “chatter” or vibration of the tool, the frontal area of the tool in contact
with the work being reduced to the minimum consistent with obtaining a good finish to the work
surface.

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 Figure 2.3

Twist drill Drills

The twist drill does most of the cutting with the tip of the bit. It has two flutes to carry the chips
up from the cutting edges to the top of the hole where they are cast off. The standard drill
geometry
Is shown in the figure:

Figure 2.4

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The typical helix angle of a general purpose twist drill is 18~30o while the point angle (which
equals two times the major cutting edge angle, see page 101) for the same drill is 118o. Some
standard drill types are,
straight shank: this type has a cylindrical shank and is held in a chuck;
Taper shank: his type is held directly in the drilling machine spindle.
Drills are normally made of HSS but carbide-tipped drills, and drills with mechanically attached
carbide inserts are commonly used in many operations, especially on CNC drilling machines:

Figure 2:5 Drill bit

Twist Drill Parts: A drill may be divided into 3 main parts: shank, body, point.
Shank
Generally, drills up to ½ “ or 13mm in diameter have straight shanks, while those over this
diameter usually have tapered shanks. Straight shank drills are held in a drill chuck; tapered
shank drills fit into the internal taper of the drill press spindle. A tang is provided on the end of
the tapered-shank drills to prevent the drill from slipping while it is cutting and allow the drill to
be removed from the spindle or socket without the shank being damaged.

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Body
The body is the portion of the drill between the shank and the point.
Point
The point of the twist drill consists of the chisel edge, lips, lip clearance, and heel. The chisel
edge is the chisel-shaped portion of the drill point. The lips or the cutting edges are formed by
the intersection of the flutes. The lips must be of equal length and have the same angle so that the
drill will run true and will not cut a hole larger than the size of the drill.

Figure 2.6 Drill bit parts

Figure 2.7 Drill Bit Types

2.2 Mount and position tools

1 Mounting the cutting tools in machine tools

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1. Appropriate selection of tool holder and the method of mounting
2. Proper positioning and orientation of the tool depending upon its
type
size and shape
geometry and it should also;
Proper alignment in respect of coaxially, concentricity and machine tool configuration
Accurate and quick locating, strong support and rigid clamping
Minimization of run out and deflection during cutting operation easy and quick mounting and
change
Unobstructed (free) chip flow and cutting fluid action.
3.2 Mounting of tools in lathes
Different types of tools which are used in lathes are usually mounted in the following ways.
HSS tools (Shank type) in the tool post.
HSS form tools and threading tools in tool post
Carbide and ceramic inserts in standard tool-holders
Drills and reamers, if required, in the tailstock
Boring tools in tool post

Figure 2.8 Lathe tool fix

3.5. Tool holding devices

The drill press spindle provides the means for holding and driving the cutting tool. It may have
tapered hole to accommodate tapered shank tools or its end may be tapered or threaded for

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mounting a drill chuck. Although there is a variety of tool holding devices and accessories, the
most commonly found in a machine shop are drill chucks, drill sleeves and drill sockets.
Drill chucks are the most common devices used on a drill press for holding straight –shank
cutting tools.
Drill sleeves are used to adapt the cutting tool shank to the machine spindle and if the taper on
the cutting tool is smaller than the tapered hole in the spindle.
A drill sockets used when the hole in the spindle of the drill press is too small for the taper shank
of the drill.
Mounting of tools in Drilling machines
Small straight shank type solid HSS and carbide drill are held in a drill chuck which is fitted in
the drill spindle at its taper bore.

Figure 2.9 Drill sleeve

Cutter holding devices in milling machines are:

Arbors - used for mounting the milling cutter, are inserted and held in the main spindle by a draw
bolter a special quick - change adapter.
Shell-end mill arbors - It may fit in to the main spindle or the spindle of the vertical attachment
which permit face milling to be done either horizontally or vertically.
Collet adapters - are used for mounting drills or other tapered - shank tools in the main spindle of
the machine or the vertical milling attachment.

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 Figure 2.10 Arber, Adapter, Shell end mill Arber, Sleeve

A quick-change adapter - mounted in the spindle, & permits drilling, boring, and milling
operations without a change in the setup of the work piece.
Drill Chuck.
The drill chuck is a small universal-type chuck which can be used in either the headstock spindle
or in the tailstock for holding
Straight-shank drills,
reamers,
taps, or
Small-diameter work-pieces.
The drill chuck has three or four hardened steel jaws which are moved together or apart by
adjusting a tapered sleeve within which they are contained.
The drill chuck is capable of centering tools and small-diameter work-pieces to within 0.002 or
0.003 of an inch when firmly tightened.

Figure 2.11 Drill chuck

CUTTING TOOL HOLDING DEVICE

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1. Straight tool holders
The straight tool holder is generally purpose type. It can be used for taking cuts in either
direction and for general machine operation
2. Left tool holder
The left hand offset tool holder is designed for machining work close the chuck or face plate for
cutting from right to left.
3. Right tool holder
The right hand offset holder is designed for machining work close to the tail stock, for cutting
from left to right and for facing operations.
4. A threading tool holder threading tool holder is designed to hold a special form-relieved
thread cutting tool
5. The carbide tool holder
The carbide tool holder: has a square hole parallel. To the base of the tool holder, to
accommodate carbide tipped tools.
6. Cutting-off /parting tools holder
Cutting-off /parting tools: is used to hold the long, thin cutting off blade that can be locked
securely in the tool holder by means of either a cam lock or locking nut.
7 Boring tool holder
Boring tool holder: are made in several styles. Alight duty tool holder, medium boring tool
holder and a heavy-duty boring bar holder.

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 Figure 2.12 Tool Holder

2.3 guards and accessories

The lathe accessories are used for holding and supporting the work or for holding the cutting the
various lathe accessories are discussed as follows
A general purpose machine tool is basically comprised of power drive and kinematic system for
the essential formative and auxiliary tool – work motions and a rigid body or structure to
accommodate all of the above. But several additional elements or devices called accessories are
also essentially required for that machines’ general functioning, mainly for properly holding and
supporting the work piece and the cutting tool depending upon the type and size of the tool –
work and the machining requirements.
1. Adjusting Centers.
a) There are two types of centers i.e.,
live center and dead center.
b) A center which fits into the headstock spindle and revolves with the work is called live center.

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c) The center which is used in a tailstock spindle and does not revolve is called dead center.

Figure 2.13 Center

2. Adjusting Chucks.
a) It is an important device used for holding and rotating the work piece in lathes.
b) The work pieces which are too short to be held between centers are clamped in a chuck.
c) It is attached to the lathe spindle by means of two bolts with the back plate screwed on to the
spindle nose.
d) There are many types of the chuck, but the following two are commonly used.
i) Three jaw universal chuck.
The three jaw universal chuck, as shown in Fig. is also called self-centering chuck or scroll
chuck. Thus chuck is used for holding round and hexagonal work.
ii) Four jaw independent chuck.
1. The four jaw independent chuck, as shown in Fig. has four reversible jaws, each of which may
be independently adjusted to accommodate the work it supports.
2. This type of chuck can hold square, round and irregular shape of work in either a concentric or
eccentric position.
a. The other types of the chucks are
iii) combination chucks, IV) magnetic chuck, v) collect chuck, vi) drill chuck, and vii) air or
hydraulic chuck
3. Adjusting Lathe dog or carrier

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a) The work placed on a mandrel or held between centers is rotated positively by clamping the
dog or carrier to the end of the work.
b) This is engaged with a pin attached to the drive plate or face plate.
c) The lathe dog or carrier may be of straight type or bent type as shown in Fig.

Figure 2.14 Lathe Dog

4. Adjusting Drive plate

a) The drive plate, as shown in Fig. is a circular plate which is bored out and threaded so that it
can be attached to the spindle nose.

Figure 2.15 Driven Plate

b) It also carries a hole for the pin which is used only when the work is held in a lathe dog having
straight tail. When bent-tail dog is used, this pin is taken out and the bent portion of the tail is
inserted into the hole.
5) Adjusting Face plate.

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 Figure 2.16 Face Plate

a) The face plate, as shown in Fig. is similar to drive plate except that it is larger in diameter.
b) It contains more open slots or T-slots so that bolts may be used to clamp the work piece to the
face of the plate.
c) The face plate is used for holding work pieces which cannot be conveniently held in a chuck.
6. Adjusting Angle plate
a) An angle plate is simply a cast iron plate with to faces planed at right angles to each other and
having slots in various positions for the clamping bolts.
b) It. is always used with the face plate for holding such parts which cannot be clamped against
the vertical surface of the face plate.

Figure 2.17 Angle Plate

7. Adjusting Mandrels
a) The lathe mandrel is a cylindrical bar with center hole at each end. It is used to hold hollow
work pieces to machine their external surface.
b) The work revolves with the mandrel which is mounted between the centers of the lathe. The
various types of mandrels used for different classes of work are shown in Fig.

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 Figure 2.18 Mandrel

8. Adjusting Steady, follower and other rests

Long work pieces often need to be supported in the middle, as cutting tools can push (bend) the
work piece away from where the centers can support them, because cutting metal produces
tremendous forces that tend to vibrate or even bend the work piece. This extra support can be
provided by a steady rest (also called a steady, a fixed steady, a center rest, or sometimes,
confusingly, a center). It stands stationary from a rigid mounting on the bed, and it supports the
work piece at the rest’s center, typically with three contact points 120° apart.

Figure 2.19 Steady Rest

A follower rest (also called a follower or a travelling steady) is similar, but it is mounted to the
carriage rather than the bed, which means that as the tool bit moves, the follower rest “follows
along” (because they are both rigidly connected to the same moving carriage)
Adjusting Machine vices

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The machine vise is used on several machines such as, the milling and drilling machines and it is
the most common type of work holding devise used on the machines.

Figure 2.20 Machine Vice

4.3 Types of spindle noses

There are four types of headstock spindle noses to which accessories are fitted. They are:
Threaded spindle
Taper and locking ring
Cam lock
Bolted
Threaded spindle
Accessories are screwed directly on to the spindle. The fit of the threaded holds the
accessory true to the axis of the spindle. A shoulder bears against the necessary to hold it square
to the spindle.

Figure 2.21 Threaded Spindle

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Taper and locking ring
When a threaded locking ring is tightened the accessory is firmly held on the taper.

Figure 2.22 Taper and locking ring

Cam lock
When the cam locks are tightened, the accessory is drawn firmly on to a short taper and against a
flange.

Figure 2.23 Cam lock

Bolted
The accessory is bolted to a flange on the spindle by a number of studs that protrude from the
rear face of the accessory. A short taper locates the accessory centrally. Drive is provided by a
locating key.

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 Figure 2.24 Bolted

4.4 Machine Guarding

Any machine part which can cause injury must be guarded. Machine guards help to
eliminate personnel hazards created by points of operation, ingoing nip points, rotating parts and
flying chips.
Types of guards commonly used machine guards are:-
Fixed guard-is kept in place permanently by fasteners that can only be released by the use of a
tool.
Interlocked guard-shuts off or disengages power to the machine and prevents it from starting
when the guard is removed/ opened.
Adjustable guard-provides a barrier which can be adjusted to suit the varying sizes of the input
stock.
Self-adjusting guard-provides a barrier which moves according to the size of the stock entering
the danger area.
Two hand controls -concurrent use of both hands is required to operate the machine, preventing
the operator from reaching the danger area.
Pull back -the device is attached to the wrist of the operator which pulls the operator's hands
away from the point of operation or other hazardous areas when the machine operates.
Machine guards are surface grinding wheels main protective barrier against a deadly result of a
broken grinding wheel.

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 Figure 2.25 Machine guard

4.4 Miscellaneous safeguarding aids

Shields can be used to provide protection from flying particles, splashing metal working
fluids or coolants. Holding tools can be used to place and remove stock. Example, reaching into
the danger area of a power press. Holding tools must not be used as a replacement of machine
guards.
4.5 Safety precautions while working with machinery
Ensure that the guards are in position and in good working condition before operating.
Know the location of emergency stop switch.
Do not wear loose clothing or jewelry that can be caught in the rotating parts.
Confine long hair.

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2.4 Cutting Speeds, RPM, Feeds and Depth of cuts

2 Cutting speed, feed and depth of cut

Cutting Speed/Surface Velocity
• Cutting speed is defined as the speed at which the work moves with respect to the tool
- It is the peripheral speed of the work past the cutting tool, or the speed at which the metal is
removed by the tool from the work.
It is expressed in meters / min or measured in feet per minute
Cutting speed, V = πdn /1000 m / min. =πdn/ft/min
Where; n= r.p.m., and d = diameter of w/p in mm or in feet
CS( ft )
r /min = (for inch calculation )
circumference (in)

12 x CS
r /min =
ΠD

D − diameter of the cutter

CS −cutting speed

CS (m) x 1000 CS x 1000

r /min = = ( for metric calculation)
Π xD(mm) 3. 1416 x D

D −diameter of the cutter

N.B during calculate lathe RPM take diameters work piece

Feed:
Feed is the distance the tool advances for each revolution of the work piece
Expressed in mm / revolution or inch/revolution
• Feed rate is defined as the distance the tool travels during one revolution of the part.

Tool Material High Speed Steel Carbide

Material Cutting Feed (f) Cutting Feed (f)
Speed Speed

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 Mild Steel 25 0.08 100 0.15
Aluminum 100 0.15 500 0.3
Hardened Steel --- --- 50 0.1

e. Depth of Cut
- The perpendicular distance measured from the machined surface to the uncut surface of work
Or the distance the tool is plunged into the surface
expressed in mm or in inch
If d1 = diameter of work before machining, and
d2 = diameter of work after machining,
Then, Depth of cut = d1 - d2 / 2
METAL REMOVAL RATE
• For turning, MRR values range from 0.1 to 600 in3 per minute.
• Most processes have MRR’s that can be expressed as the volume of metal removed divided by
the time needed to remove it:
MRR = (volume of cut)/(cutting time)
• MRR can be used to estimate the power required to sustain the cutting operation.
For most Aluminum alloys,
On a roughing cut (.010 to .020 inches depth of cut) run at 600 fpm.
On a finishing cut (.002 to .010 depth of cut) run at 1000 fpm

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Fig4.26 metal removal rate
Cutting time
• With turning, the cutting time can be expressed as the following:
• The allowance is an estimation factor which is added to the L term to allow for the tool to enter
and exit the cut.

.
6.6 Recommended feed per tooth (for high speed steel cutters)
Material Face mills Helical Mills Slotting and End mills Form relived
side Cutters
Mills
In Mm In Mm In Mm In Mm In mm
Aluminum 0.022 0.55 0.018 0.45 0.013 0.33 0.0 0.28 0.007 0.18
11
Brass & 0.014 0.35 0.011 0.28 0.008 0.20 0.0 0.18 0.004 0.10
Bronze 07
Machine 0.012 0.30 0.010 0.25 0.007 0.18 0.0 0.15 0.004 0.10
steel 06
Tool steel 0.010 0.25 0.008 0.20 0.006 0.15 0.0 0.13 0.003 0.08
(medium) 05
Stainless 0.006 0.15 0.005 0.13 0.004 0.10 0.0 0.08 0.002 0.05
steel 03
Cast iron 0.013 0.33 0.010 0.25 0.007 0.18 0.0 0.18 0.004 0.10
07

2.5 Setup Operations

Before starting a lathe machining operation, always ensure that the machine is set up for
the job that is to be accomplished. After selecting and preparing proper cutting tool you have to

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adjust the center distance The cutting edge of the tool bit should be set to the center height of
the lathe spindle. There are several methods for checking the height of the tool bit. Perhaps the
simplest way is to place a thin strip of metal, such as a steel rule or feeler gage, between the work
piece and the point of the tool bit. If the height is correct, the strip of metal will be held vertical.
If the top is leaning toward you, the tool bit is too low. If the top is leaning away from you, the
tool bit is too high. Using the standard tool post, you adjust the tool bit height using shims under
the tool bit. You can get an economical set of shims, about the right size, at any auto parts store.
Purchase a set of feeler gages and remove the pivot pin. The easy way to adjust the tool bit
height is to get a quick change tool post. Virtually all quick change tool posts incorporate a
mechanism for easily adjusting the tool bit height.
Lathe Machine Operation
Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) - Lathe
All stock must be properly secured in the lathe chuck or mounted prior to the machining process
taking place. Use the correct sized clamp or vise for the stock being machined.
Turn the chuck or faceplate by hand to ensure there is no binding or danger of the work striking
any part of the lathe.
Check to ensure the cutting tool will not run into the chuck or lathe dog. If possible, feed away
from the chuck or dogs.
Before starting the lathe, ensure the spindle work has the cup center imbedded; tail, stock and
tool rests are securely clamped; and there is proper clearance for the rotating stock.
Prior to starting the lathe, ensure that small diameter stock does not project too far from the
chuck without support from the tail stock center.
When using wood, do not mount a split work piece or one containing knots.
When roughing stock, do not force the tool in the work piece or take too big a cut.
The operator must always be aware of the direction and speed of the carriage or cross-feed prior
to engaging the automatic feed.
Never leave the key in the chuck. Do not let go of the key until it is free of the chuck and secured
in its proper holding place.

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Select turning speed carefully. Large diameter stock must be turned at a very low speed. Always
use the lowest speed to rough out the stock prior to final machining.
The correct speed and feed for the specific material and cutting tool must be used. Stop the
machine before making adjustments or measurements.
Do not remove metal or wood chips from the table or stock by hand. Use a brush or other tool to
properly remove chips or shavings from the table or stock.
Never attempt to run the chuck on or off the spindle head by engaging the power.
Do not stop the rotation of the chuck by reversing the power to the lathe unless tapping holes.
Do not leave tools, bits or excess pieces of stock on the lathe bed.
All belts and pulleys must be guarded. If frayed belts or pulleys are observed, the lathe must be
taken out of service and the belts or pulleys replaced.
Stop the machine immediately if odd noise or excessive vibration occurs.
Only properly sharpened drill bits and cutting tools in good condition should be used. Dull drill
bits and chipped or broken cutting tools must be removed from service.
Disconnect the lathe from power source and follow OSEH Guideline IHS011, Lock-out/Tag-out
- Control of Hazardous Energy Sources if making repairs or servicing.
When an operator has finished working on the lathe, and before leaving the lathe for any reason,
the power must be shut off and the machine must come to a complete stop.
When an operator observes an unsafe condition with the lathe or stock being worked, the
operator must report it immediately to the designated MSSA and the lathe shall be taken out of
service until the problem has been corrected.
Steps In Facing Operation
1. Prepare the tools and materials.
2. Observe safety precautions while operating the lathe.
3. Mount the work piece to the chuck.
4. Center the work piece.
5. Set the facing tool used right cut facing tool.
6. Feed the cutting tool into the work with the compound rest.
7. Repeat procedure no. 5 until work piece meet the specified measurement

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 Knurling Operation
The knurling tool must be set up correctly. Otherwise, the knurls will not track
properly and will dull rapidly. Use this procedure:
1. Mark off the section to be knurled.
2. Adjust the lathe to a slow back gear speed and a fairly rapid feed.
3. Place the knurling tool in the tool post and set it up to the work. Both wheels must bear evenly
with the wheel faces parallel with the work surface.
4. Start the lathe and force the knurls slowly into the work surface until a pattern begins to form.
Engage the automatic feed and let the tool move across the work. When it reaches the proper
position, stop the machine but do not disengage the feed. Reverse spindle rotation and permit the
tool to move back to the starting point. Repeat the operation until a satisfactory knurl has been
formed. Flood the surface with cutting fluid during the operation.

Self-check-2
Test-I Choose
1. Which operation always performed fist?
A. Tapering B. Facing C. Turning D. forming
2. ______is defined as the operation of producing a hole by removing a metal from a solid
mass using a cutting tool called a twist drill.
A. Boring B. Drilling C. Countersinking D. Reaming
3. Reaming is used for______
A. Drilling work B. Smoothing work C. Tapping work D. Countersinking
4. A large nose radius produces better for _____?(1point)
A. Cutting large amount B. Good surface finish C. Rough cutting D. All
5. A 60° angle cutting tool used for___? (1point)

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 A. Parting B. Threading C. Grooving D. Turning

Directions II: Calculate

1. List the six angles of turning tools? (6pints)
2. Write the two cutting edges on the end of the tool bit? (2 Points)

Directions 2: Match the term in column A with the term in column B.

A B
1. is generally purpose type. It can be used for taking cuts in A. dead center.
either direction and for general machine operation

2. concurrent use of both hands is required to operate the B. B. live center

machine, preventing the operator from reaching the danger
area

3. offset tool holder is designed for machining work close the C. Interlocked guard-.
chuck or face plate for cutting from right to left

4. center which fits into the headstock spindle and revolves with D. Straight tool holders
the work is called

5. shuts off or disengages power to the machine and prevents it E. Left tool holder
from starting when the guard is removed/ opened
6. The center which is used in a tailstock spindle and does not F. straight tool holder
revolve is called

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Unit Three : Perform machine operations
This unit is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following content
coverage and topics:
 Work holding devices
 Operate machine
 machine parameters
o Speeds
o Feeds
o Depth
 safety procedures.

This unit will also assist you to attain the learning outcomes stated in the cover page.
Specifically, upon completion of this learning guide, you will be able to:
 Mount materials to be machined and secured using clamping devices.
 Operate machine correctly
 Set machining parameters for job requirements and maximum tool life.
o Speeds
o Feeds
o Depth
 Perform operations applying safety procedures.

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3.1 Work holding devices

3.3 Mounting of work in lathes

Work is held or mounted in the lathe with a number of methods,
Between two centers. The work piece is driven by a device called a dog; the method is suitable
for parts with high length-to-diameter ratio.
A 3 jaw self-centering chuck is used for most operations on cylindrical work parts. For
parts with high length-to-diameter ratio the part is supported by center on the other end.
Collet consists of tubular bushing with longitudinal slits. Collets are used to grasp and
hold bar stock. A collet of exact diameter is required to match any bar stock diameter.
A face plate is a device used to grasp parts with irregular shapes:

Figure 3.1 Four work holding methods used in lathe

3.4 Mounting a Work on milling machine

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 A. General.
An efficient and positive method of holding work pieces to the milling machine table is essential
if the machine tool is to be used to advantage. Regardless of the method used in holding, there
are certain factors that should be observed in every case. The work piece must not be sprung in
clamping; it must be secured to prevent it from springing or moving away from the cutter; and it
must be so aligned that it may be correctly machined.
Milling machine worktables are provided with several T-slots, used either for clamping and
locating the work piece itself or for mounting various holding devices and attachments. These T-
slots extend the length of the table and are parallel to its line of travel. Most milling machine
attachments, such as vises and index fixtures, have keys or tongues on the underside of their
bases so that they may be located correctly in relation to the T-slots.
Methods of Mounting Work pieces.
(1) Clamping a Work piece To the Table.
(2) Clasping a Work piece to the Angle Plate.
(3) Clamping Work pieces in Fixtures.
(4) Holding Work pieces Between Centers.
(5) Holding Work pieces in a Chuck.
(6) Holding Work pieces in the Vise.

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 Figure 3.2 Mounting and centering work in lathe

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Cutter holding devices in milling machines are:
Arbors - used for mounting the milling cutter, are inserted and held in the main spindle by a
draw bolter a special quick - change adapter.
Shell-end mill arbors - It may fit in to the main spindle or the spindle of the vertical attachment
which permit face milling to be done either horizontally or vertically.
Collet adapters - are used for mounting drills or other tapered - shank tools in the main spindle
of the machine or the vertical milling attachment.
3.6 WORK HOLDING DEVICES
Many different devices, such as chucks, collets, faceplates, drive plates, mandrels, and
lathe centers, are used to hold and drive the work while it is being machined on a lathe. The size
and type of work to be machined and the particular operation that needs to be done will
determine which work holding device is best for any particular job. Another consideration is how
much accuracy is needed for a job, since some work holding devices are more accurate than
others. Operational details for some of the more common work holding devices the universal
scroll chuck, Figure 7-19, usually has three jaws which move in unison as an adjusting pinion is
rotated. The advantage of the universal scroll chuck is its ease of operation in centering work for
concentric turning. This chuck is not as accurate as the independent chuck, but when in good
condition it will center the jaws are moved simultaneously within the chuck by a scroll or spiral-
threaded plate. The jaws are threaded to the scroll and move an equal distance inward or outward
as the scroll is rotated by the adjusting pinion. Since the jaws are individually aligned on the
scroll, the jaws cannot usually be reversed. Some manufactures supply two sets of jaws, one for
internal work and one for external work. Other manufactures make the jaws in two pieces so the
outside or gripping surface may be reversed. Which can be interchanged? r work within 0.002
The universal scroll chuck can be used to hold and automatically center round or hexagonal
workplaces. Having only three jaws, the chuck cannot be used effectively to hold square,
octagonal, or irregular shapes. to The independent chuck, Figure 7-19, generally has four jaws
which are adjusted individually on the chuck face by means of adjusting screws. The chuck face
is scribed with concentric circles which are used for rough alignment of the jaws when chucking
round workplaces. The final adjustment is made by turning the work piece slowly by hand and

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using a dial indicator to determine its concentricity. The jaws are then readjust The jaws of the
independent chuck may be used as illustrated or may be reversed so that the steps face in the
Opposite direction; thus workplaces can be gripped either externally or internally. The
independent chuck can be used to hold square, round, octagonal, or irregularly shaped
workplaces in either a concentric or eccentric position due to the independent operation of each
jaw. Because of its versatility and capacity for fine adjustment, the independent chuck is
commonly used for mounting odd shaped workplaces which must be held with extreme
accuracy.
The drill chuck, Figure 7-19, is a small universal chuck which can be used in either the
headstock spindle or the Tail stock for holding straight-shank drills, reamers, taps, or small
diameter workplaces. The drill chuck has three or four hardened steel jaws which are moved
together or apart by adjusting a tapered sleeve within which they are contained. The drill chuck
is capable of centering tools and small diameter workplaces to within 0.002 or 0.003 inch when
firmly tightened.

3.7 the collet chuck

The most accurate means of holding small work pieces in the lathe . The collet chuck is the most
accurate means of holding small workplaces in the lathe. The collet chuck consists of a spring
machine collet (Figure 7-20) and a collet attachment which secures and regulates the collet on
the headstock spindle of the lathe.
The spring machine collet is a thin metal bushing with an accurately machined bore and a
tapered exterior. The collet has three lengthwise slots to permit its sides being sprung slightly
inward to grip the work piece. To grip the work piece accurately, the collet must be no more than
0.005 inch larger or smaller than the diameter of the piece to be chucked. For this reason, spring
machine collets are available in increments of 1/64 inch. For general purposes, the spring
machine collets are limited in capacity to 1 1/8 inch in diameter.

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 Figure 3.0:17 spring machine collet

3.8 LAYING OUT AND MOUNTING WORK

There is relatively little layout work to be done for most lathe work because of the lathe’s
ability to guide the cutting tool accurately to the work piece. If center holes must be located and
drilled into the end of a work piece for turning lay out and center-punch the work piece using
other methods. Some suggested methods are to use a bell-type center punch between centers and
this cannot be accomplished on the lathe, (Figure 7-32), use hermaphrodite calipers to scribe
intersecting arcs, use the centering head of the combination square, or use dividers (Figure 7-33).

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 Figure 3:0:18 lay outing on work piece

3.9 METHODS OF MOUNTING WORK

Mounting Work pieces in Chucks When installing the chuck or any attachment that
screws onto the lathe headstock spindle, the threads and bearing surfaces of both spindle and
chuck must be cleaned and oiled. In cleaning the internal threads of the chuck, a spring thread
cleaner is very useful (Figure 7-34).

Figure 3:0:19 spring thread cleaner

Turn the spindle so that the key is facing up and lock the spindle in position. Make sure that the
spindle and chuck taper are free of grit and chips. Place the chuck in position on the spindle.

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Engage the draw nut thread and tighten by applying four or five hammer blows on the spanner
wrench engaged with the draw nut. Rotate the spindle 180°, engage the spanner wrench, and give
four or five solid hammer blows to the spanner wrench handle. The work piece is now ready for
mounting. Work automatically centers itself in the universal (3 jaw) scroll chuck, drill chuck,
collet chucks, and step chuck, but must be manually centered in the independent (4 jaw) chuck.
To center work in the independent chuck, line the four jaws up to the concentric rings on the face
of the chuck, as close to the required diameter as possible. Mount the work piece and tighten the
jaws loosely onto the work piece (Figure 7-35). Spin the work piece by hand and make
approximate centering adjustments as needed, then firmly tighten the jaws.

Figure 3:0:20 mounting work piece on 4 jaw

To center a work piece having a smooth surface such as round stock, the best method is to
use a dial test indicator. Place the point of the indicator against the outside or inside diameter of
the work piece. Revolve the work piece slowly by hand and notice any deviations on the dial.
This method will indicate any inaccuracy of the centering in thousandths of an inch.
Mounting Work to Faceplates
Mount faceplates in the same manner as chucks. Check the accuracy of the faceplate
surface using a dial indicator, and true the-faceplate surface by taking a light cut if necessary. Do
not use faceplates on different lathes, since this will cause excessive wear of the faceplate due to
repeated truing cuts having to be taken. Mount the work piece using T-bolts and clamps of the
correct sizes (Figure 7-36). Ensure all surfaces are wiped clean of burrs, chips, and dirt. When a
heavy piece of work is mounted off center, such as when using an angle Plate, use a

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counterweight to offset the throw of the work and to minimize vibration and chatter. Use paper
or brass shims between the work and the faceplate to protect the delicate surface of the faceplate.
After mounting the work to an approximate center location, use a dial indicator to finish accurate
alignment
3.9.2 Mounting Work between Centers
Before mounting a work- piece between centers, the work piece ends must be center-
drilled and countersunk. This can be done using a small twist drill followed by a 60° center
countersink or, more commonly, using a countersink and drill (also commonly called a center
drill). It is very important that the center holes are drilled and countersunk so that they will fit the
lathe centers exactly. Incorrectly drilled holes will subject the lathe centers to unnecessary wear
and the work piece will not run true because of poor bearing surfaces. A correctly drilled and
countersunk hole has a uniform 60° taper and has clearance at the bottom for the point of the
lathe center. Figure 7-37 illustrates correctly and incorrectly drilled center holes.

Figure 3:0:21 Center drill

To mount work between centers, the operator must know how to insert and remove
lathe centers. The quality of workmanship depends as much on the condition of the lathe centers
as on the proper drilling of the center holes. Install the lathe center in the tailstock spindle with a
light twisting motion to ensure a clean fit. Install the center sleeve into the headstock spindle and
install the lathe center into the center sleeve with a light twisting motion. To remove the center
from the headstock spindle, hold the pointed end with a cloth or rag in one hand and give the
center a sharp tap with a rod or knockout bar inserted through the hollow headstock spindle. To
remove the center from the tailstock, turn the tailstock hand wheel to draw the tailstock spindle

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into the tailstock. The center will contact the tailstock screw and will be bumped loose from its
socket

Figure 3:0:22 Checking the alignment of centering

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 Lathe centers must be parallel with the ways of the lathe in order to turn workplaces
straight and true. Before beginning each turning operation, the center alignment should be
checked. The tailstock may be moved laterally to accomplish this alignment by means of
adjusting screws after it has been released from the ways. Two zero lines are located at the rear
of the tailstock and the centers are approximately aligned when these lines coincide (Figure 7-
42). This alignment may be checked by moving the tailstock up close to the headstock so that the
centers almost touch, and observing their relative positions (Figure 7-42).
After mounting the headstock and tailstock centers, the accuracy of the 60° point should be
checked using a center gage or a dial indicator. If the center in the headstock is not at 60°, or is
scarred and burred, it must be trued while inserted in the lathe headstock spindle. If the
headstock center is a soft center (a center that is not heat-treated and hardened), it can be turned
true with the lathe tool bit. If the center in the headstock is hardened, it must be ground with a
tool post grinding machine to get a true surface (Figure 7-40).

Figure 3:0:23 holding work between center

3.9.4 Mounting Work on Mandrels

To machine a work piece of an odd shape, such as a wheel pulley, a tapered mandrel is
used to hold and turn the work. The mandrel must be mounted between centers and a drive plate
and lathe dog must be used. The centers must be aligned and the mandrel must be free of burrs.
Mount the work piece onto a lubricated mandrel of the proper size by using an arbor press.
Ensure that the lathe dog is secured to the machined flat on the end of the mandrel and not on the

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smooth surface of the mandrel taper (Figure 7-44). If expansion bushings are to be used with a
mandrel, clean and care for the expansion bushings in the same manner as a normal mandrel.

Figure 3:0:24 pulley mounted on mandrel

Always feed the tool bit in the direction of the large end of the mandrel, which is usually
toward the headstock end, to avoid pulling the work out of the mandrel. If facing on a mandrel,
avoid cutting into the mandrel with the tool bit.
MOUNTING AND INDEXING WORK
An efficient and positive method of holding workplaces to the milling machine table
is important if the machine tool is to be used to its fullest advantage. The most common methods
of holding are clamping a work piece to the table, clamping a work piece to the angle plate,
clamping the work piece in fixtures, holding a work piece between centers, holding the work
piece in a chuck, and holding the work piece in a vise.
Regardless of the method used in holding, there are certain factors that should be observed in
every case. The work piece must not be sprung in clamping, it must be secured to prevent it from
springing or moving away from the cutter, and it must be so aligned that it may be correctly
machined T-slots, Milling machine worktables are provided with several T-slots which are used
either for clamping and locating the work piece itself or for mounting the various holding
devices and attachments. These T-slots extend the length of the table and are parallel to its line of
travel. Most milling machine attachments, such as vises and index fixtures, have keys or tongues
on the underside of their bases so that they may be located correctly in relation to the T-slots.
4.1 Clamping Work pieces to the Table

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 When clamping a work piece to the worktable of the milling machine, the table and the
work piece should be free from dirt and burrs. Work pieces having smooth machined surfaces
may be camped directly to the table, provided the cutter does not come in contact with the table
surface during milling. When clamping workplaces with unfinished surfaces in this way, the
table face should be protected from damage by using a shim under the work piece. Paper,
plywood, and sheet metal are shim materials. Clamps should be located on both sides of the work
piece if possible to give a full bearing surface. These clamps are held by T-slot bolts inserted in
the T-slots of the table. Clamp supports must be the same height as the work piece. Never use
clamp supports that are lower than the work piece. Adjustable step blocks are extremely useful to
raise the clamps, as the height of the clamp bar may be adjusted to ensure maximum clamping
pressure. Clamping bolts should be placed as near to the work piece as possible so that the full
advantage of the fulcrum principle may be obtained. When it is necessary to place a clamp on an
overhanging part, a support should be provided between the overhang and the table to prevent
springing or possible breakage. A stop should be placed at the end of the work piece where it
will receive the thrust of the cutter when heavy cuts are being taken.
4.2 Clamping a Work piece to the Angle Plate
Work pieces clamped to the angle plate may be machined with surfaces parallel,
perpendicular, or at an angle to a given surface. When using this method of holding a work piece,
precautions should be taken similar to those mentioned for clamping work directly to the table.
Angle plates are either adjustable or nonadjustable and are generally held in alignment by keys
or tongues that fit into the table T-slots
4.3 Clamping Work pieces in Fixtures
Fixtures are generally used in production work where a number of identical pieces are
to be machined. The design of the fixture depends upon the shape of the piece and the operations
to be performed. Fixtures are always constructed to secure maximum clamping surfaces and are
built to use a minimum number of clamps or bolts in order to reduce the setup time required.
Fixtures should always be provided with
Keys to assure positive alignment with the table T-slots.
4.4 Holding Work pieces in a Chuck

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 Before screwing the chuck to the index head spindle, it should be cleaned and any
burrs on the spindle or chuck removed. Burrs may be removed with a smooth-cut, three cornered
file or scraper, while cleaning should be accomplished with a piece of spring steel wire bent and
formed to fit the angle of the threads. The chuck should not be tightened on the spindle so tightly
that a wrench or bar is required to remove it. Cylindrical workplaces held in the universal chuck
may be checked for trueness by using a test indicator mounted upon a base resting upon the
milling machine table. The indicator point should contact the
Circumference of small diameter work pieces or the circumference and exposed face of large
diameter pieces. While checking, the work piece should be resolved by rotating the index head
spindle.
4.5 Holding Work pieces in the Vise
AS previously mentioned, five types of vises are manufactured in various sizes for
holding milling machine workplaces. These vises have locating keys or tongues on the underside
of their bases so they may be located correctly in relation to the T-slots on the milling machine
table (Figure 8-22).
The plain vise similar to the machine table vise is fastened to the milling machine table.
Alignment with the milling machine table is provided by two slots at right angles to each other
on the underside of the vise. These slots are fitted with removable keys that align the vise with
the table T-slots either parallel to the machine arbor or perpendicular to the arbor. The swivel
vise can be rotated and contains a scale graduated in degrees at its base which is fastened to the
milling machine table and located by means of keys placed in the T-slots. By loosening the bolts
which clamp the vise to its graduated base, the vise may be moved to hold the work piece at any
angle in a horizontal plane. To set a swivel vise accurately with the machine spindle, a test
indicator should be clamped to the machine arbor and a check made to determine the setting by
moving either the transverse or the longitudinal feeds, depending upon the position of the vise
jaws. Any deviation as shown by the test indicator should be corrected by swiveling the vise on
its base.
The universal vise is used for work involving compound angles, either horizontally or
vertically. The base of the vise contains a scale graduated in degrees and can rotate 360° in the

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horizontal plane and 90° in the vertical plane. Due to the flexibility of this vise, it is not
adaptable for heavy milling.

Figure 3:0:25 mount work in the vice

4.6 Mounting the Work piece

When face milling, the work piece may be clamped to the table or angle plate or
supported in a vise, fixture, or jig. Large surfaces are generally face milled on a vertical milling
machine with the work piece clamped directly to the milling machine table to simplify handling
and clamping operations.

Figure 3:0:26 Face milling

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3.2 Operate machine

Lathe machine Operations

3.1.1 Facing
Facing is the operation of machining the ends of a piece of work to produce flat Surface
Square with the axis. The operation involves feeding the tool perpendicular to the axis of rotation
of the work. Facing operation

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 Figure 3:0:27 Facing

FACING
Facing is the square finishing of the ends of the work-piece and is often used to bring the piece to
a specified length.
In facing operations, the cutter bit does not traverse laterally (left or right) but cuts inward or
outward from the axis of the piece.
Facing of the ends is usually performed before turning operations.

Facing Work in a Chuck

Facing is usually performed with the work held in a chuck or collets.
Allow the work piece to extend a distance no more than 1 1/2 times the work diameter from the
chuck jaws.
And use finishing speeds and feeds calculated using the largest diameter of the work piece.
The tool bit may be fed from the outer edge to the center or from the center to the outer edge.
Normal facing is done from the outer edge to the center since this method permits the operator to
observe the tool bit and layout line while starting the cut. This method also eliminates the
problem of feeding the tool bit into the solid center portion of the work piece to get a cut started.
Use a left-hand finishing tool bit and a right-hand tool holder when facing from the outer edge
toward the center.
Work that has a drilled or bored hole in the center may be faced from the center out to the outer
edge if a right-hand finishing tool bit is used.

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Avoid excessive tool holder and tool bit overhang when setting up the facing operation. Set the
tool bit exactly on center to avoid leaving a center nub on the work piece.
Use the tailstock center point as a reference point when setting the tool bit exactly on center.
If no tailstock center is available, take a trial cut and readjust as needed. If using the cross slide
power feed to move the tool bit (into the center), disengage power when the tool bit is within l/16
inch of the center and finish the facing cut using hand feed.

Figure 3:0:28 Facing Work between Centers

Sometimes the work piece will not fit into a chuck or collets, so facing must be done between
centers. To properly accomplish facing between centers, the work piece must be center-drilled
before mounting into the lathe.
A half male center (with the tip well lubricated with a white lead and oil mixture) must be used
in the lathe tailstock to provide adequate clearance for the tool bit.
The tool bit must be ground with a sharp angle to permit facing to the very edge of the center
drilled hole Start the facing cut at the edge of the center-drilled hole after checking for tool bit
clearance, and feed the cutting tool out to the edge.
Use light cuts and finishing feeds, which will reduce the tension, put on the half male center.
Replace the half male center with a standard center after the facing operation, since the half
male center will not provide adequate support for general turning operations.
Only a small amount of material can be removed while facing between centers.

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If too much material is removed, the center-drilled hole will become too small to support the
work piece.

Figure 3:0:29 Facing tool working from center to out

Turning
Turning in a lathe is to remove excess material from the work piece to produce cylindrical
surface of required shape and size

Figure 3:0:30 Turning

Straight turning may he performed upon a work-piece supported in a chuck, but the majority of
work pieces turned on an engine lathe are turned between centers.
Turning is the removal of metal from the external or internal surface of cylindrical work pieces
using various types of cutter tool bits.
3.1.2 ECCENTRIC TURNING
If the off-center size is beg enough both the required centers can be drilled.
First the big diameter and then the off-center journal have to be turned. If the off-center size is
small then the bigger diameter finished first.

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 Eccentric turning is done
Using lathe dogs and face plates by drilling the two centers.
On four jaws chuck by off-setting the independent jaw equal to the off-set center.

Figure 3:0:31 Off-centre turning

3.1.3 Cylindrical turning

The objectives of cylindrical turning are to produce a circular cylindrical surface in longitudinal
cylinder turning the feed is parallel to the rotational axis of the work piece.
Taper may be defined as a uniform increase or decrease in diameter of a piece of work
measured along its length.
Taper turning methods
1. Form tool method
2. Compound rest method
3. Tailstock set over method

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4. Taper turning attachment method
3.1.4 Taper turning
A section of material is considered to be tapered when it increases or decreases in diameter at a
uniform rate.
3.1.4 Taper turning with compound rest:
The compound rest is generally used for turning or boring short steep tapers, but it can also be
used for longer, gradual tapers, providing the length of the taper does not exceed the distance the
compound rest will move upon its slide.
This method can be used with a high degree of accuracy, but is somewhat limited due to the lack
of an automatic feed and the length of the taper being restricted to the movement of the slide.

Figure 3:0:32 taper turning

When turning a taper using compound rest, note cut is made from small diameter to large
diameter.
3.1.5 Taper turning by offset tailstock method:
This method also known as the tail stock set-over method is employed for taper turning jobs that
can turned between centers.
Only external tapers can be machined by using this method. calculating tail stock set over(S).
Offset(S) must calculate for each job because the length of the piece plays an important part in
the calculation.
When the length of the piece vary, different will be produced with the same tail stock offset.
Formula used ; Offset, S = LX(D-d)
2Lo
Where D= diameter of large end
d= diameter of small end
Lo= length of taper

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 L= total length of piece

Figure 3:0:33 a taper by offset tailstock

Study how to machine a taper by offset tailstock technique.

3.1.6 Turning a taper with taper turning attachment:
It is an accurate way to cut tapers and offers advantages over other methods of machining tapers.
Internal and external tapers can be cut and accurate fit is assured for mating parts.
Work can be held by any conventional means.
The lathe does not have to be altered. The machine can be used for straight turning by locking
the taper attachment out. No realignment of the lathe is necessary.

Figure 3:0:34 lathe fitted with telescopic taper attachment.

3.1.7 Grooving and parting operations

Grooving:

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 Grooving is the process of cutting a narrow groove on the cylindrical surface of the work
piece. It is often done at end of a thread or adjacent to a shoulder to leave a small margin. The
groove may be square, radial or beveled in shape
It is commonly called
recessing,
undercutting, or
Necking is often done at the end of thread to permit full travel of the nut up to a shoulder, or at
the edge of a shoulder to ensure a proper fit of mating parts.
Grooves are generally
square,
round, or
V-shaped.

Figure 3:0:35 Lathe grooving operation

3.1.9 Parting operations:

Parting is the operation of cutting off material after it has been machined. This is one of the more
difficult operations performed on a lathe.
The cutting tool must be ground with the correct clearance and held in straight or offset tool
holder.

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 Figure 3:0:36 parting off

3.2 KNURLING:

Knurling is the process of embossing a diamond shaped pattern on the surface of the
work piece. The knurling tool holder has one or two hardened steel rollers with edges of required
pattern. The tool holder is pressed against the rotating work. The rollers emboss the required
pattern. The tool holder is fed automatically to the required length. Knurls are available in
coarse, medium and fine pitches. The patterns may be straight, inclined or diamond shaped.
Knurls are available in coarse, medium and fine pitches. The patterns may be straight, inclined or
diamond shaped.
Knurling is a process of impressing a diamond shaped or straight line patter into the surface of
the work piece to improve its appearance or to provide a better grip surface.
Straight knurling is often used to increase the work-piece diameter when a press fit is required.
Diamond and straight pattern rolls are available in three styles: fine, medium, and coarse. The
knurling tool is a tool post type tool holder on which a pair of hardened steel rolls are mounted.

Diamond –point knurling of a cylindrical work piece

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The purpose of knurling is:
1. To provide an effective gripping surface
2. To provide better appearance to the work
3. To slightly increase the diameter of the work

3.3 Chamfering
Chamfering is the operation of beveling the extreme end of the work piece. The form tool
used for taper turning may be used for this purpose. Chamfering is an essential operation after
thread cutting so that the nut may pass freely on the threaded work piece.

Figure 3:0:37 Chamfering

Thread cutting
Thread cutting is one of the most important operations performed in a lathe. The process of
thread cutting is to produce a helical groove on a cylindrical surface by feeding the tool
longitudinally.

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 Figure 3:0:38 Threading

3.4 THREAD CUTTING

A thread is a uniform helical groove cut on or in a cylinder or cone. Thread cutting on a lathe is
one of the most exacting lathe operations.
It requires a thorough knowledge of the principles and procedures of thread cutting.
It ties together a number of operations and dimensions in such a way that accuracy must be
maintained to achieve a proper working thread.
Before attempting such operations, the operator should have knowledge of the fundamental
principles of threads and the types in general use.
A. Screw Thread Terminology
1. External or Male Thread. A thread on the outside of a cylinder or cone.
2. Internal or Female Thread. A thread on the inside
of a hollow cylinder or bore.
3. Pitch (P). The distance from a given point on one thread to a similar point on a thread next to
it, measured parallel to the axis of the cylinder. The pitch in inches is equal to one divided by the
number of threads per inch.
Lead.
The distance a screw thread advances axially in one complete revolution. On a single-thread
screw, the lead is equal to the pitch. On a double-thread screw, the lead is equal to twice the
pitch, and on a triple thread screw, the lead is equal to three, times the pitch.
Crest (also called “flat”). The top or the outer surface of the thread joining the two sides.
Root. The bottom or inner surface joining the sides of two adjacent threads.

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Side. The side of a thread is the surface which connects the crest and the Root.
Thread Angle. The angle between the sides of the adjacent threads, measured in an axial plane.
For most V-threads, the angle is fixed at 600.
Depth. The depth of the thread is the distance between the crest and the root of a thread,
measured perpendicular to the axis.
Major Diameter (D). The major diameter is the largest diameter of a screw thread.
Minor Diameter (K). The minor diameter is the smallest diameter of a screw thread.
Pitch Diameter. The pitch diameter is the diameter of an imaginary cylinder formed where the
width of the groove is equal to one-half of the pitch. This is the critical dimension of threading as
the fit of the thread is determined by the pitch diameter.
Number of Threads per Inch/mm. The number of threads per inch may be counted by placing a
rule against the threaded parts and counting the number of pitches in 1 inch. A second method is
to use the screw pitch gage. This method is especially suitable for checking the finer pitches of
the screw threads.
Screw Thread Forms.
The most commonly used thread forms are discussed below.
The Acme,
Square, threads are the most common used for devices which function to transmit motion.
V- threads
V- Threads with a 60° thread angle. (National) Standard thread, a flat should be carefully ground
at the point of the bit, perpendicular to the center line of the 60° thread angle.

2. Acme Screw Thread.

The Acme screw thread form classified as a power-transmitting type of thread. This is because
the 29° included threaded angle at which its sides are established reduces the amount of friction

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when matching parts are under load. Because the root and crest are wide, this thread form is
strong and capable of carrying a heavy load. The Acme thread form is specially suitable

Square Screw Thread.

Because of their design and strength, square screw threads are used for vise screws, jack screws,
and other devices where maximum transmission of power is needed. All surfaces of the square
thread are square with each other and the sides are perpendicular to the center axis of the
threaded part. Because the contact areas are relatively small and do not wedge, friction between
the matching threads is reduced to a minimum under heavy pressure.

3.5 Setting Lathe for Thread Cutting

In cutting threads on a lathe, the pitch of the thread or the number of threads per inch obtained is
determined by the speed ratio of the headstock spindle and the lead screw which drives the
carriage.
Lathes that are equipped for thread cutting have gear arrangements for varying the speed of the
lead screw.

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Most modern lathes have a quick-change gearbox for varying the lead screw to the spindle ratio,
but many older lathes, modern inexpensive lathes, and special lathes come equipped with
standard change gears which must be arranged by computation to achieve the desired speed ratio.
Quick-Change Gearbox for lathes equipped with quick-change gearboxes, the operator need only
follow the instructions on the direction plates of the lathe to set the proper feed to produce the
desired number of threads per inch. Once set to a specific number of threads per inch, the spindle
speed can be varied depending upon the material being cut and the size of the work piece,
without affecting the threads per inch.

SETTING UP CUTTER BIT FORTHREAD CUTTING OPERATIONS

Figure 3:0:39 Acme screw thread gage

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3.7 Drilling, Boring, Reaming, and counter boring
3.7.1 DRILLING
Work held in a chuck can be drilled quickly and accurately in a lathe.
The drill held in a drill chuck or in the tailstock spindle, brought against the revolving work by
turning the tailstock handle wheel. Various methods can be used to hold drills in a lathe
depending on the size of the drill being used.
the most common methods are
Straight shank drills in a drill chuck.
Taper shank drills in the tailstock spindle taper.
Large taper shank drills in a drill holes.

Figure 3:0:40 Drilling

3.7.2 Boring:
Boring is the operation of enlarging a drilled or bored hole by means of a single or double edge
cutting tool held in a boring bar.
The hole produced should be concentric, parallel, and perpendicular to the work surface.

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 Figure 3:0:41 Boring

3.7.3 Reaming
It is the operation of sizing and producing a smooth hole from a previously drilled or bored hole
with the use of a cutting tool having several cutting edges.

Figure 3:0:42 Reaming

3.7.4 Counter boring:

It the operation of enlarging the end of a hole which has been drilled previously. A hole is
generally counter bored to a depth slightly greater than the head of the blot, cap screw, or pin
which it is to accommodate.
Counter bores are supplied in a variety of styles, each having a pilot in the end to keep the tool in
line with the hole being counter bored.
3.8 PROFILE TURNING

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Radii and other shapes on a work piece are produced by profile turning. Generally, profile tools
corresponding to the desired shape of the work-piece are used.

Figure 3:0:43 Profile turning

Milling Machine operations

Although the majority of operations performed on a peripheral milling machine are either plain
milling or side milling, several other operations or combinations of operations may be
performed.
3.9.1 Plain or slab milling: the production of a horizontal flat surface parallel to the axis of the
milling machine arbor. The work piece may held in a vise or fixture or fasten directly to the table
and the cutter width extends beyond the work piece on both sides.

Figure 3:0:44 Milling the surface of a work piece held in a fixture.

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3.9.2 Side milling: is the process of machining a vertical flat surface perpendicular to the axis of
the milling machine arbor. This operation is performed by the combined action of the peripheral
and side teeth on a side milling cutter.

Figure 3:0:45 Side milling a vertical surface.

3.9.3 Face milling: is used to produce a flat surface parallel to the machine. This is done by
means of a face milling cutter mounted in the milling-machine spindle. Face milling may also be
done using a vertical milling attachment to produce horizontal flat surfaces. Both the periphery
and the end of the teeth do the cutting.

Figure 3:0:46 Face milling a flat surface with a shell end mill.

3.9.4 Slotting: is the process of cutting grooves or slots in the work piece. A staggered-tooth side
milling cutter or an end mill can be used for this operation

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The two methods of milling
Conventional and Climb Milling: The direction in which the work piece is fed into the cutter
indicates whether conventional (up) milling or climb (down) milling is being used. In climb
(down) milling method, work is fed in the same direction to the direction of rotation of the cutter.
Conventional (Up) Milling: In Conventional milling method, work is fed against (in opposite)
the direction of rotation of the cutter. It is the most commonly used method of milling.

Figure 3:0:47. Conventional (Up) milling and Climb (Down) milling

Certain types of work can best be milled by climb milling, if the machine is equipped with a
backlash eliminator. Although climb milling is not as widely used as conventional milling, it has
certain advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages
It is particularly suited to the machining of thin and hard-to-hold parts, since the work piece is
forced against the table or holding device by the cutter.
Work need not be clamped as tightly.
Consistent parallelism and size may be maintained particularly on thin parts.
It may be used where breakout at the edge of the work piece could not be tolerated.
It requires up to 20 present less power to cut by this method.
It may be used when cutting off stock or when milling deep, thin slots.
Disadvantages
It cannot be used unless the machine has a backlash eliminator and the table gibs have been
tightened.
It cannot be used for machining castings or hot rolled steel, since the hard outer scale will
damage the cutter.

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3.3 Machine Parameters

3.3.1 Feed:
The amount of tool advancement per revolution of the job parallel to the surface being machined.
it is given in mm/rev of the job that which the tool is feed
it depends upon :- finished required, depth of cut and the rigidity of the machine.
Mathematically, ( f) = feed per rev. X rpm

3.3.2 Cutting speed

It means the number of meters measured on the circumference of a job that passes the cutting
edge of the tool in one minute.
mathematically,

Cutting speed, (v) =∏DN inm/min. Or N=VX1000

1000
Where, D= is diameter of a job in m N= is spindle or job speed in rpm
For example: - calculate the rpm of a lathe machine spindle to turn a work having cutting speed
55 m/ min. Assume the diameter of the work is 80 mm.

3.3.3Depth of cut

It is the advancement of the tool in the job in a direction perpendicular to the surface being
machined.
Depth of cut depends up on cutting speed, rigidity of machine and tool material.
Depth of cut, (t) = D-d
2
Where, D = is diameter of the work piece
D = is diameter of the work required

Milling
Cutting variables are the most important factors which affect the efficiency if the milling
machine.

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These are:-
1) Cutting speed: The speed, in surface feet per minute (sf/min) or meters per minute ( m /min)
of which the metal may be machined efficiently.
The formula used to find the work speed in mm
Rpm = cs x 320 Where, cs = meter per minute
D D= diameter of cutter in millimeter
The speed used on a milling machine depends:-
The type of work material
The cutter material
The diameter of the cutter’
The surface finish required
The depth of cut being taken
Example:1. calculater the r/min required for a 75 mm diameter high speed milling cutter when
cutting machine steel ( cs= 30 m/min)
solution: rpm= 30 m/min x320 = 9600 = 128
7575mm
2)Feed: it is the distance in inches/ or ( mm/min) that the work moves
The formula used to calculate the feed in mm/min. Is:-
Feed(rev/min) = N x cpt x r/min
Where, N = number of teeth on the milling cutter
Cpt = chip per tooth for a particular cutter find from table
r/min = revolution per minute of milling cutter
The feed rate used on milling machine depends up on a variety of factors, such as
 The depth and width of cut
 The design or type of cutter
 The sharpness of the cutter
 The work piece material
 The strength and the uniformity of the work piece
 The type of finish and accuracy required.

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Example: Find the feed in millimeter per minute (mm/min) for a 75 mm diameter, six-tooth
helical milling cutter when machining cast iron work piece.
Solution: first calculate the rpm of the cutter
Rpm = cs x 320
D
= 60 x 320= 256 mm/rev
75
Thus, feed ( mm/ min) = N x cpt x rpm
= 6 x o.18 x 256
= 276 mm/ min
DEPTH OF CUT: it is the advancement of the tool in the job in a direction perpendicular to the
surface being machined.
Table 1 Recommended feed per tooth (for high speed steel cutters)

Material Face mills Helical Mills Slotting and End mills Form relived
side Cutters
Mills
In Mm In Mm In Mm In Mm In mm
Aluminum 0.022 0.55 0.018 0.45 0.013 0.33 0.0 0.28 0.007 0.18
11
Brass & 0.014 0.35 0.011 0.28 0.008 0.20 0.0 0.18 0.004 0.10
Bronze 07
Machine 0.012 0.30 0.010 0.25 0.007 0.18 0.0 0.15 0.004 0.10
steel 06
Tool steel 0.010 0.25 0.008 0.20 0.006 0.15 0.0 0.13 0.003 0.08
(medium) 05
Stainless 0.006 0.15 0.005 0.13 0.004 0.10 0.0 0.08 0.002 0.05
steel 03
Cast iron 0.013 0.33 0.010 0.25 0.007 0.18 0.0 0.18 0.004 0.10

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 07

3.4 Safety Procedures.

1.2 Safety Requirement in machine shop

Safety
The importance of safety was realized a century ago because of the occurrence of millions of
industrial and other accidents, which resulted in death, or disablement of industrial employees
every year.
1.1 Causes of Accidents
The accidents may take place due to
 Human causes,
 Environmental causes and
 Mechanical causes.

Human Causes
 Accidents may occur while working on unsafe or dangerous equipment or machineries
possessing rotating, reciprocating and moving parts.
 Accidents occur while operating machines without knowledge, without safety
precautions, without authority, without safety devices
 Accidents generally occur while operating or working at unsafe speed
 Working for long duration of work, shift duty etc.
 Accidents commonly occur during use of improper tools
 Accidents may occur while working with mental worries, ignorance, carelessness,
nervousness, dreaming etc.
 Accidents occur because of not using personal protective devices

Environmental Causes
 Working at improper temperature and humidity (causes fatigue to the workers so a
chance of accidents increases with workers having fatigue).

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  The presence of dust fumes and smoke in the working
 Poor housekeeping, congestion, blocked exits; bad plant layout etc. may cause accidents.
 Accidents occur due to inadequate illumination.
 Improper ventilation in the plant may also leads to industrial accidents.

Mechanical Causes
 Continued use of old, poor maintained or unsafe equipment may result in accidents.
 Accidents commonly occur due to use of unguarded or improper guarded machines or
equipment
 Unsafe processes, unsafe design and unsafe construction of building structure may lead to
accidents in the plant.
 It can occur due to improper material handling system and improper plant layout.
 May occur due to not using of safety devices such as helmets, goggles, gloves, masks etc.

a. Other general causes of accidents in workshops

Because of ignorance to work with

 -Equipment,

 Hand tools,

 -Cutting tools and

 -Machine tools.

 Operating machine and equipment’s without knowledge

 Extra curiosity to work without knowing

 Poor working conditions. Because of speedy work

 Improper method to work

 Due to use of improper tools

 Because of lack of discipline

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  Uninterested in work

 Due to carelessness

 Due to over confidence

 Bad working environment

 Excessive over times duty by industrial workers

 Dangerous materials with which to work

 Lack of cleanliness

 Due to poor planning

As always we should be aware of safety requirements and attempt to observe safety rules in
order to eliminate serious injury to ourselves or others.
Wear glasses, short sleeves, no tie, no rings, no trying to stop the work by hand. Stop the
machine before trying to check the work. Don’t know how it works? –“Don’t run it.” Don’t use
rags when the machine is running.
Unguarded moving parts of machines/equipment and the sudden or uncontrolled release of their
power systems can result in serious injuries.
Personnel working with machines must be aware of the risks involved and follow safe work
practices.
Causes of accidents while working with machinery

 Loose clothing, hair, jewelry being caught in moving parts.

 Materials ejected from the machine when it is operational.

 Unplanned starting of the machine.

 Slipping and falling into an unguarded nip.

 Contact with sharp edges, e.g., cutting blade.

 Making adjustments while the machine is operational.

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  Unauthorized operation of machines.

 Lack of preventive maintenance.

Hazards parts of machines

 Rotating machine parts give rise to damages or injuries. Examples are

 Rotating gears

 Belt and its pulley

 Chain and sprocket

 Between grinding wheel and tool rest

 Between rotating and fixed parts-Rotating parts operating alone

 Shafts

 Couplings-Reciprocating and sliding motions

Safety Rules
Personal safety
 Dress appropriately remove necktie, necklace, wrist, watch & rings
 Wear apron or a properly shop fitted over coat and safety glasses
 place all guards before attempting to operate the machine
 To clean the lathe, do not remove chips with bare hands.
 Care must be taken when handling long sections of metal stock.
 Keep hand tools in good conditions and store them in such a way that peoples cannot be
injured.

Machine safety
 No attempt should be made to operate a lathe until you know the proper procedure
 Don`t use compressed air to remove chips and cutting oil from machine.
 Keep the machine clear of tools.

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  Work shop safety
 Avoid horse play
 Keep the floor around your machine clear of chips and wipe up spilled cutting fluid
 Oily rugs must be placed in approved safety containers.
 Safety when Machining Work Piece
 Do not operate any machine before understanding its mechanism.
 Always stop a machine before measuring, cleaning or making any adjustments. It is
dangerous to do any type of work around moving parts of a machine.
 Never operate a machine unless all safety guards are in place.
 Keep hands away from moving parts. It is dangerous practice to “feel” the surface of the
revolving work or to stop a machine by hand
 Never use a rag near the moving parts of a machine rag may be drawn into the machine,
along with the hand that is holding it.
 Never have more than one person’s operate a machine at the same time. Not knowing
what the other person would or would not do has caused many accidents
 Get first aid immediately for any injury, no matter how small

Self-Check -3 Written Test

Directions I: Answer all the questions listed below.

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 1. ----------------- is to remove excess material from the work piece to produce a cylindrical
surface of required shape and size
A. Tuning B. Facing C. Taper D. Knurling
2. Operations which is not on the lathe include
straight and shoulder turning, parting,
facing, turning tapers,
grooving, None
_____3 which working condition of the lathe will determine

A speed, C Depth of cut

B feed, D All of the above

_____4 Depth of cut depends up on

A cutting speed, C Tool material.

B rigidity of machine and D All of the above

_____1 Safety rules and procedures in lathe machine operation are

A Personal safety
B Be sure all guards are in place before attempting to operate the machine
C Do not operate machines while taking medication(medicine)
D All of the above
_____6 One of the following is not types of turning
A Cylindrical turning
B Tapper turning
C Eccentric turning
D Decreasing the diameter of the work-pieces
E Off-set turning
F None of the above

--------- 7. One of the following is not types of tapper turning

A Taper turning with compound rest

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 B Taper turning by offset tailstock method
C Turning a taper with taper turning attachment
D Taper turning with forming tools
E None
-------- 8. Lathe chucks
A Three-jaw universal chuck
B Four- jaw independent chuck
C Collect chuck
D Hollow Headstock Spindle Chuck
E All of the above
- ------- 9. One is properties of faceplates
A A lathe faceplate is a flat, round plate that threads to the headstock spindle of the lathe.
B The faceplate is used for clamping and machining irregularly-shaped work-pieces
C The work-piece is either attached to the faceplate using angle plates or brackets, or is
bolted directly to the plate.
D All of the above
-------10. Lathe chucks
A Three-jaw universal chuck
B Four- jaw independent chuck
C Collect chuck
D Hollow Headstock Spindle Chuck
E All of the above

Directions II: Match the term in column A with the term in column B.

A B
1. The direction in which the work piece is fed into the cutter A. face plate
indicates whether conventional (up) milling or climb (down)
milling is being used. In climb (down) milling method, work
is fed in the same direction to the direction of rotation of the

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 cutter.

2. is the process of cutting grooves or slots in the work piece. A B. Conventional

staggered-tooth side milling cutter or an end mill can be used (Up) Milling:
for this operation

3. is a device used to grasp parts with irregular shapes C. Slotting

4. the production of a horizontal flat surface parallel to the axis D. Plain or slab
of the milling machine arbor. The work piece may held in a milling
vise or fixture or fasten directly to the table and the cutter
width extends beyond the work piece on both sides

5. In Conventional milling method, work is fed against (in E. A 3 jaw self-

opposite) the direction of rotation of the cutter. It is the most centering chuck
commonly used method of milling.

6. have locating keys or tongues on the underside of their bases F. face plate
so they may be located correctly in relation to the T-slots on
the milling machine

7. To machine a work piece of an odd shape, such as a wheel G. Collet

pulley

8. consists of tubular bushing with longitudinal slits. Collets are H. vises

used to grasp and hold bar stock. A collet of exact diameter is
required to match any bar stock diameter.

9. is a device used to grasp parts with irregular shapes: I. Mandrels

10. is used for most operations on cylindrical work parts. For J. Conventional
parts with high length-to-diameter ratio the part is supported and Climb
by center on the other end. Milling

Directions III: Answer all the questions listed below.

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 1. Write three examples of Hazards parts of machines? (3points)
2. Essential causes of accidents a. ________________________ ? (5point)
a. b. -------------------------------------------
b. ------------------------------------------
3. Write three types of Human Causes accidents? (5point)
4. Write the Good working habits of a skilled machinist (5point)
5. Name the seven (7) factors to be considered in determining the job
requirements

Directions III: Answer all the questions listed below. Use the Answer sheet provided in the next
page:
Write three examples of Hazards parts of machines? (3points)
Essential causes of accidents a. ________________________ ? (5point)
b. -------------------------------------------
c. ------------------------------------------
4. Write three types of Human Causes accidents? (5point)
5. Write the Good working habits of a skilled machinist (5point)
6. Name the seven (7) factors to be considered in determining the job
requirements

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Operation sheet 3.1. Perform machine operations
Operation title: Operate machine
Purpose: To perform facing operation
Instruction: Using the figure below and given equipments measure the length of each line
Tools and requirement.
Cylindrical stock
2. Chuck key
3. Tool holder
4. Tool bit
5. Lathe machine
Steps in doing the task
Step 1- Mount a three jawed chuck onto the head stock
Step 2- Install a Drill chuck into your tailstock
Step 3- Secure your stock in the three jawed chuck with about 1 inch – 2 inch extending out
beyond the jaws
Step 4- Using your “right handed cutting tool” square or face off the end of the stock. You
Step 5- want to take off just enough material to clean up the end so make sure that you are not
taking too aggressive of a pass.
Step 6- Insert a #4 (stamped on to the drill) center drill into the drill chuck on your tailstock
Center drill the end about ¼ inches deep
Step 7- Take your part out of the three jawed chuck, flip it over, and secure it back in the chuck
Step 8- Face off the second end. Take off the smallest amount of material possible Center drill
the second end about ¼ inches

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Step 9- When done; remove the 3 jaw chuck from the headstock and the drill chuck from the
tailstock.

Quality Criteria :- the tolerance will be 0.05

Precautions :-All dimension in mm

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Lap Test
Task-1: Perform facing operation
Task-2: Perform Turning operation
Task-3: Chamfering
Task-4: square grooving
Task-5: Tapering
Task-3: Measure canal dimension

Figure 3:0:48 project 1

Figure 3:0:49 project 2

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Unit Four : Quality assure finished component
This unit is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the following content
coverage and topics:
Check Components
measuring tools and equipment
Handle deviations
routine maintenance and adjustments
This unit will also assist you to attain the learning outcomes stated in the cover page.
Specifically, upon completion of this learning guide, you will be able to:
Check Components for conformance to specifications
Use appropriate measuring tools and equipment
Handle deviations
Carry out routine maintenance and adjustments

4.1 Check Components

Definitions of conformance

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 Conformance is usually defined as testing to see if an implementation successfully meets the
requirements of a standard or specification. There are many types of testing including testing for
performance, strength, surface finish, shape and dimensions. Although conformance testing may
include some of these kinds of tests, it has one fundamental difference of the requirements or
criteria for conformance must be specified in the standard or specification. This is usually in a
conformance clause or conformance statement, but sometimes some of the criteria can be found
in the body of the specification. Some standards have subsequent documentation for the test
methodology and assertions to be tested. If the criteria or requirements for conformance are not
specified, there can be no conformance testing.
Consequences of incorrect sharpening
Reduce tool life
Complete failure of cutting edge
Bend easily the cutting tool
Effects of incorrect speeds and feeds
Too Fast: Too much spindle speed will generate excess heat which softens the tool and dulls it
faster. There are exceptions and mitigating circumstances we'll talk about in more advanced
installments.
Best Tool Life: Slowing down the spindle a bit and feeding at slightly less than appropriate for
maximum MRR gives the best tool life. We'll talk more below about Taylor's equations for tool
life, but suffice it to say that reducing the spindle rpm is more important than reducing the
federate, but both will help.
Surface Finish: Reducing your federates while keeping the spindle speed up lightens the chip
load and leads to a nicer surface finish. There are limits, the biggest of which is that you'll
eventually lighten the federate too much, your tools will start to rub, and tool life will go way
down due to the excess heat generated by the rubbing.
Feeding Too Slow: As discussed, feeding too slow leads to rubbing instead of cutting, which can
radically shorten your tool life and is to be avoided. Now that you know how the sweet spots
break down, you'll have a better idea how to steer your feeds and speeds to the desired results.
Non-Conformance Report Items

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A non-conformance report must include at a minimum of the following information:
What is the main reason for the Non-Conformance Report or what went wrong
Why the work doesn't meet the requirement
What can be done to prevent the problem from happening again?
Explanation of corrective action taken/to be taken
Product Inspection
Product Inspections conducted at various stages of the manufacturing process help you
secure your production, safeguard the quality of your product and protect your brand image.
Product Inspections allow you to verify product quality on operation at different stages of the
production process and prior to its dispatch. Inspecting your product before it leaves the working
drawing requirement is an effective way of preventing quality problems.
An inspector checks your product against your chosen specifications to meet a range of
requirements including passing the given standards of your destination market. With the use of
inspection checklists that you can select online and tailor to your needs, your quality control
process can be standardized and key quality concerns communicated to all parties involved in the
inspection.

4.2 Measuring Tools And Equipment

2.1. Techniques of checking conformance

Some common methods are visual; using measuring tools and equipment, industrial computed
tomography scanning, microscopy, dye penetrant inspection, magnetic-particle inspection, X-
ray or radiographic testing, ultrasonic testing, eddy-current testing, acoustic emission testing, and
thermograph inspection. For example, steel ruler is generally used by students for measuring
length in few centimeters or millimeters.
Inspection in manufacturing includes measuring, examining, testing, or gauging one or more
characteristics of a product or process and comparing the results with specified requirements to
determine whether is the requirements are met for each characteristic. Common examples of
inspection by measurement or gauging include using a caliper or micrometer to determine if a
dimension of a manufactured part is within the dimensional tolerance specified in a drawing for

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that part, and is thus acceptable for use. Measurement instruments used to certify manufacturing
conformity should be considered early in the design of products.
2.2. Measuring tools and equipment in checking conformance.
1. Vernier caliper:-You can obtain better accuracy with the vernier caliper.
Vernier caliper consists principally of:-
A main scale (the fixed scale);
A fixed jaw (part of the rule scale);
A vernier scale (a moving scale);
A sliding jaw (attached to the moving scale).
The rule scale is graduated in millimeters. The moving scale moves on the rule scale,
attached to the sliding jaw in a clamp. The vernier scale is graduated to read up to 49 mm. There
are 50 divisions, which mean that there is a difference of 0.02 mm between the vernier scale and
the main scale.
You need regular practice in using the vernier caliper to ensure that you understand its principle
and use:
Move the sliding jaw to be in contact with the face being measured.
Tighten the locking screw on the clamp.
Make fine adjustment using the fine-setting screw.
Move the jaws so that they just touch the work; do not apply any force.
Tighten the head lock.

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 Figure 4:0:50 Vernier caliper

To read (for example) 25.44 mm from the caliper, look for the number of the millimeter
division below the vernier zero: for example, it is 25. Next find the line on the vernier scale that
coincides with a line on the main scale: in this case 22. To calculate the total measurement,
multiply 20 by 0.02 and add to 25:
That is:
Main scale reading = 25.00 mm
Vernier scale reading = 22 X 0.02 (0.44 mm) Final reading = 25.44 mm
The vernier caliper is a useful tool for taking external and internal measurements. Add the widths
of the jaws (which are always stated on the caliper when taking internal measurements.

F
igure 4:0:51

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Principle of Vernier Caliper
 Rule consists of the slide that fits over the rule. A distance on the slide of six-
hundred thousandths (0.600) of an inch is graduated into 25 equal parts so that each division
measures twenty four thousandths (0.024) of an in. Fig. 6.1.13. The graduations on the rule itself
are twenty-five thousandth (0.025) of an inch, so in a distance of 600 there are 24 divisions on
the rule. The difference in the size of the division on the rule and those on the vernier scale is one
thousandth (.001) of an inch.

Figure 4:0:52

2. Micro meter
A micrometer is a very useful instrument. It enables you to take measurements to within one
hundredth of a millimeter (0.01 mm). The metric micrometer is able to measure ranges of 25 mm
(that is, for 0-25 mm, 25-50 mm, and so on). A common type is shown in Figure 4.51.
The micrometer has a thread with pitch 0.5 mm.
This means that the spindle advances by 0.5 mm for each turn. However, there are 50
graduations on the thimble. So the movement advanced for each graduation of the thimble is
0.5/50 = 0.01 mm.
The procedure for using the micrometer is as follows.
1. Hold the plastic insert to prevent thermal expansion.
2. Keep the measuring faces square with the surfaces that you are measuring, to ensure an
accurate measurement.

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3. Turn the thimble until the faces touch the work.
4. Use the ratchet (if there is one) to obtain the correct pressure when turning the thimble, and
prevent the jaw from moving further when it comes into contact with the work.

Figure 4:0:53

The reading in Figure above is

Upper main scale 12.00 mm
Lower main scale (no half mm) 0.00 mm
Circular thimble scale 0.13 mm
13 X 0.01 mm = 0.13mm
Total reading 12.13 mm
The micrometer is an expensive tool, and you must take the utmost care when using it. The
following points should help you.
• Make sure that you store the micrometer away from dust.
• Always clean the measuring faces for good results.
• Oil the micrometer regularly to avoid rust.
• Pack the micrometer in its box when not in use.
• Do not use force on the thimble or ratchet.
Vernier Height Gauge
The vernier height gauge is used in conjunction with the surface plate, which has a smooth
surface. The gauge has a heavy base. This supports the main scale, which is graduated in a
similar way to the calipers. It has a means for of adjustment (Figure 4.53). It is used for accurate
measurement of the depths of holes, slots, keyways and the like.

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You can use the vernier protractor to measure angles to within 5 min of arc (Figure 4.54). The
tool makes use of the vernier scale discussed above. It has the following parts: the main scale,
with angular divisions; the vernier scale, divided into 12 divisions on each side of a zero mark;
the rotating arm, which controls the movement of the vernier scale.
The procedure for using the vernier protractor is as follows
1. Observe the value of degrees on the main scale to each side of the zero mark on the vernier
scale: for example, in Figure 4.54(b) it is 12°.
2. Find the mark on the vernier scale that coincides with a mark in the main scale. This gives the
number of minutes (15 min in this case).
3. Add the two values together to give the reading: 12° 15'
For accurate readings take care when setting and reading the vernier protractor.

Figure 4:0:54 Height gage and vernier protractor

Dial Gauge
The dial gauge, or dial test indicator (Figure 4.55), is a comparator. You use it to compare
measurements. The tool magnifies minute movements for easy reading. It converts the linear
movement of the plunger into rotary movement of an indicator, which moves over a circular
scale. The scale is divided into equal parts, each representing 0.01 mm.

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Bevel Protractor (Fig. 6.1.8). It is an instrument having a dial graduated in degree and sliding
blade which is usually about 1/16 thick and it is used to measure angles and degree. Show fig.
6.1.9

Figure 4:0:55 Vernier Bevel Protractor

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Apply techniques Using Precision Measuring Tools

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 Figure 4:0:56 Measuring Techniques

4.3 Handle deviations

Introduction
Quality Risk Management was mainly designed to be used prospectively when manufacturing
operations are defined and validated. Therefore, potential deviations are identified and avoided
by implementing risk control measures and preventive actions. QRM is based on the
identification of product attributes and operational parameters which are critical to
manufacturing operations in order to identify in advance their associated risks. This guidance
document describes how this information may be used as criteria for the categorization and
treatment of events, and eventually, deviations.
Under this approach, a sequence of steps may be identified when handling events and possible
deviations:
 Event Detection
 Decision Making Process / Deviation Categorization

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 Deviation Treatment
 Root cause investigation
 CAPA
Concept of deviations
The differences of measurement from the given tolerances and the differences of
measurement between each value in from working drawing’s dimensions.
Actual deviation. This difference between a particular size and the basic. On the clearance fit
diagram below the:-
Lower the deviation on the hole = the minimum diameter hole – basic size.
The upper deviation on the shaft = basic size – maximum
Diameter shaft.

Figure 4:57

3.2. Errors in Measurement System

An error may be defined as the difference between the measured value and the actual value. For
example, if the two operators use the same device or instrument for finding the errors in
measurement, it is not necessary that they may get similar results. There may be a difference

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between both measurements. The differences that occurs between both the measurements.
Systematic Error / Random Error
Examples
A worn out instrument: For example, a plastic tape measure becomes slightly stretched over the
years, resulting in measurements that are slightly too high,
An incorrectly calibrated or tarred instrument, like a scale that doesn't read zero when nothing is
on it,
A person consistently takes an incorrect measurement.
Organization procedures and standard for handling deviations
Policies and procedures are designed to influence and determine all major decisions and actions,
and all activities take place within the boundaries set by them. Procedures are the specific
methods employed to express policies in action in day-to-day operations of the organization.
Causes of deviation

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Using the wrong tool
In accurate taking care of operation
Lack of operator skill
Selecting wrong material
Corrective and Preventive Action
Corrective and Preventive Action (CAPA) focuses on the investigation of
deviations. It does so in an attempt to either prevent their recurrence or their occurrence in the
first place. To ensure the effectiveness of any corrective and preventive actions, organizations

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should continue monitoring them after the completion of the RCA and overall investigation. The
most common CAPA-related audit observations include “inadequate—did not sufficiently
address root cause;” “inappropriate, did not address root cause;” “corrective and preventive were
not clearly defined;” and “not completed in the timeline identified.” One of the biggest pitfalls
associated with CAPA occurs when someone assigns corrective and preventive actions without
regard for resource requirement, capacity, ownership or timeline—in other words, without a
plan. When it comes to CAPA, regulatory authorities expect organizations to ensure:
The identified CAPA addresses the root cause;
The solution can be implemented;
There is clear understanding of the overall impact of the CAPA;
Timelines and responsibilities (for implementation) have been reviewed and agreed to;
There is a plan; and
There is a monitoring phase.

If an organization makes it through the investigation and determines the root cause, that forms
just part of the equation. In the case of an inappropriate CAPA, further problems may ensue.
Thus, the appropriate CAPA should be applied and monitored to ensure its effectiveness.

4.4 Routine Maintenance And Adjustments

4.1 Introduction
Maintenance is all about preserving inherent reliability or built –in capacity of any asset.
When we maintain an asset, the state which we wish to preserve must be one in which it
continues to do whatever its users want it to do.
4.2 Purpose and objective of maintenance
The main purpose of maintenance in all industrial perspective is to reduce the business risks. In
general, operation and maintenance is synonymous with high level of availability, reliability and
assets operability linking directly with production capacity, productivity and business profit. The
main objectives of maintenance are:-

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To obtain plants and equipment at its maximum operating efficiency, reducing downtimes and
ensuring operational safety.
To safeguard instruments by minimizing rate of deterioration and achieving this at optimum cost
through budgeting and controls.
To help management in taking decisions on replacements or new investments and actively
participate in specification preparation, equipment selection, its correction commissioning etc.
Help in implementation of suitable procedures for procurement, storage and consumption of
spares, tools and consumables etc.
Standardization of spares and consumables, in conformity with plant, national and international
standards and help in adoption of this standard by all users in the plant.
Running of centralized sciences like steam generation and distribution, water supply, air supply
and fuel supply etc.
Running of captive workshops for repairs and conditioning and also for making some new
spares.
Routine maintenance
Routine maintenance is the simplest but very essential form of maintenance system. Earlier the
routine maintenance was considered about preventing failures. Today routine maintenance is
being considered about avoiding, reducing or eliminating the consequences of failures. It
involves jobs such as cleaning, lubrication, inspection and minor adjustments pressure,
flow, tightness etc. and tightening of loose parts etc. It also includes inspection of bearings, V-
belts, couplings, jointing, foundation bolts, earthlings and protective covers etc. The small
and critical defects, observed during such inspection, are rectified immediately and bigger jobs
are planned for rectification during next available shutdown. Such maintenance is essential for
effective scheduled and preventive maintenance.
Routine maintenance is not necessarily need-based. In a equipment !plant some motors may be
running for 4 hours a day and some others may be running 20 hours a day but, in routine as
maintenance, all may be inspected at the same frequency. This may lead to some amount of over
maintenance in some components, but the system pays up handsomely in the long run.
“Regularity”,

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.e. carrying out planned jobs regularly in simple cyclic schedule, is very essential in routine
maintenance. Such schedules are simple (like check, clean, lubricate, tighten, adjust etc) and
repetitive. Routine maintenance may also be considered as a small portion of preventive
maintenance. Frequency of routine maintenance is generally once every shift or every day
(normally at the start). Of course in sophisticated and automatic working equipment or in
equipment having enough condition monitoring gadgets to indicate failures or deviations, the
period of routine maintenance may change. Again, if such jobs are more and time availability is
less, one group of job may be planned for Monday, another group of jobs for Tuesday and so on.
Routine maintenance needs very little investment in time and money. The duration of routine
maintenance is generally so small that it does not affect the output of machine appreciably.
However, the cost of not-doing routine maintenance may be very high as a small defect may
develop in big and catastrophic failure.
As one example of routine maintenance, in few railway suburban electric trains system,
whenever the train stops at few bigger stations, a group of maintenance people immediately
starts checking and doing minor jobs like identifying loose parts and tightening, cleaning
moisture traps and checking brakes etc. The whole job may take 10 to 12 minutes by the time the
train is due to start for onward journey. In industries, during shift change periods, a small group
of maintenance personnel carry out necessary inspection, lubrication, adjustments and tightening
etc., which may take about 15 minutes.
4.3.1 Routine Maintenance, also known as preventive maintenance and it is an
essential part of the ongoing care and upkeep of any machine while on operations. For example,
lubricating the machine parts, cleaning machine regularly, changing the coolant of the machine
Regular maintenance of equipment is an important and necessary activity. The term
'maintenance' covers many activities, including inspection, testing, measurement, replacement
and adjustment, and is carried out in all sectors and workplaces.
4.4 Corrective maintenance where equipment is repaired or replaced after wear, malfunction or
break down.
4.5 Predictive maintenance, which uses sensor data to monitor a system, then continuously
evaluates it against historical trends to predict failure before it occurs.

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Self-check-4
Test-I Matching
Directions: Choose the Best Answer
1. Which one types of testing or testing for conformance of the machined component?
A. conformance B. Surface finish C. Shapes and dimensions D. None
2. Which is one must be included in a non-conformance report?
A. Main reason error B. The solution to prevent the problem
C. Explanation of corrective action to be taken D. All
3. It is used to measure squareness of the edge of the work piece.
a. try square b. steel rule c. caliper d. micrometer

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4. Is a precision tool used to measure diameter of round stock.
a. micrometer b. rule c. divider d. try square
5. Write three examples for Errors in Measurement System?
6. Define deviations?
Component inspections allow on operation at final stages of the production process.
True B. False
Directions: : Identify the different reading of micrometer and vernier caliper. Use separate
sheets of paper.
List the parts of Vernier caliper?
List the parts of Vernier Micrometer

Reading
____________MM
____________MM
____________MM
____________MM
____________MM

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Operation sheet 4.1: Quality assure finished component
Operation title: Check for conformance
Purpose: To Check for conformance of components
Instruction: Using the conformance standard measure equipments
Tools and requirement
V. Caliper
Micrometer
Steps in doing the task
Step 1- Establishing Standards and Methods for Measuring Performance
Step 2- Measuring the Performance
Sep 3- Determination of Whether the Performance Matches the Standard,
Step 4- Taking Corrective Action
Quality Criteria :- tolerance 0.02mm
Precautions

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Operation sheet 4.1: Quality assure finished component
Operation title: Routine Maintenance And Adjustment
Purpose: To prevent machine from damage and to increase efficiency
Instruction: Using the manual and see maintenance schedule
Tools and requirement
V. Caliper
Micrometer
Steps in doing the task
Step 1- check the oil, coolant and grease lubrication manuals
Step 2- check the performance of the machine based on the manuals
Sep 3-open the oil, coolant box and fill the oil or the coolant
Step 4- check the indicator and reclose the oil coolant boxes
Step 5- clean the machine the areas
Quality Criteria
Use standard oil
Precautions
See manual

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Lap Test
Name: _____________________________ Date: ________________
Time started: ________________________ Time finished: ________________
Instructions: Given necessary templates, tools and materials you are required to perform the
following tasks within 1hour.

Task 1. Checking for conformance of the machined part

Task 2.Undertake routine maintenance of the machine

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 List of Reference Materials

Book: Machining and Machine Tools by A. B. Chattopadhyay.

Book: Metal Cutting: Theory And Practice by A. Bhattacharya.

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Page 131 of 133 Ministry of Labor and Perform General Workshop Version -1
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Participants of this Module (training material) preparation

N Name Qualifica Field of Study Organization/ Institution Mobile E-mail

o tion number
(Level)
1 Meseret W/Mariam A(MSC) Manufacturing Wolkite polytechnic college 0912117416 Bmesi2007@gmail.com

2 Solomon Negtu A(MSC) Manufacturing Harer polytechnic college 0912762152 solonnigatu@gmail.com

3 Kibru getahun B(BSC) Manufacturing M.G.M.B. polytechnic college 0912370975 bmkibru@gmail.com
4 Efrem Kebede B(BSC) MAT BPTC 0910410054 efremkebede27@gmail.com
5
6
7

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