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• Introduction:
– Definition
– Principles
– Classification
Welding Technology –
–
Application
Advantages & limitations of welding.
• Arc Welding:
– Principle
– Metal Arc welding (MAW)
Ramesh K T – Flux Shielded Metal Arc Welding (FSMAW)
– Inert Gas Welding (TIG & MIG)
Asst. Professor – Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
Dept of Industrial Engineering & Management – Atomic Hydrogen Welding processes. (AHW)
• Gas Welding:
BMS College of Engineering – Principle
– Oxy – Acetylene welding
– Reaction in Gas welding
– Flame characteristics
– Gas torch construction & working
– Forward and backward welding.

INTRODUCTION • Welding terminology

• Welding is a process for joining different materials.
• The large bulk of materials that are welded are metals and their alloys,
although the term welding is also applied to the joining of other materials such
as thermo plastics.
• Welding joins different metals/alloys with the help of a number of processes in
which heat is supplied either electrically or by means of a gas torch.
• In order to join two or more pieces of metals together by one of the welding
processes, the most essential requirement is Heat. Pressure may also be
employed.
• Since a slight gap usually exists between the edges of the work pieces, a 'filler
metal’ is used to supply additional material to fill the gap. But, welding can also
be carried out without the use of filler metal.
• The filler metal is melted in the gap, combines with the molten metal of the
work piece and upon solidification forms an integral part of the weld.

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PRINCIPLE OF WELDING CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING PROCESSES

• An ideal joint between two pieces of metal or plastic can be made by heating • There are about 35 different welding and brazing processes and several
the workpieces to a suitable temperature. In other words, on heating, the soldering methods in use by industry today.
materials soften sufficiently so that the surfaces fuse together. • There are various ways of classifying the welding and allied processes. For
• The bonding force holds the atoms, ions or molecules together in a solid. This example, they may be classified on the basis of:
'bonding on contact' is achieved only when: – Source of heat, i.e., flame, arc, etc
– the contaminated surface layers on the workpiece are removed, – Type of interaction i.e. liquid/liquid (fusion welding) or solid/solid (solid state
– recontamination is avoided, and welding).
– the two surfaces are made smooth, flat and fit each other exactly. • In general, various welding and allied processes are classified as follows:
• In highly deformable materials, the above aims can be achieved by rapidly
forcing the two surfaces of the workpiece to come closer together so that
plastic deformation makes their shape conform to each another; at the same 1. Gas Welding
time, the surface layers are broken up, allowing the intimate contact needed to
fuse the materials.  Air Acetylene Welding
• This was the principle of the first way known to weld metals; by hammering the  Oxyacetylene Welding
pieces together while they are in hot condition.  Oxy hydrogen Welding
 Pressure gas Welding

2. Arc Welding 4. Solid State Welding ADVANTAGES OF WELDING

 Carbon Arc Welding  Cold Welding • A good weld is as strong as the base metal.
 Shielded Metal Arc Welding  Diffusion Welding • General welding equipment is not very costly.
 Flux Cored Arc Welding
 Explosive Welding • Portable welding equipments are available.
 Submerged Arc Welding
 TIG (or GTAW) Welding  Forge Welding • Welding permits considerable freedom in design.
 MIG (or GMAW) Welding  Friction Welding • A large number of metals/alloys both similar and dissimilar can be joined by
 Plasma Arc Welding  Hot Pressure Welding welding.
 Electro slag Welding  Roll Welding • Welding can join workpieces through spots, as continuous pressure tight seams,
 Electro gas Welding end-to-end and in a number of other configurations.
 Ultrasonic Welding.
 Stud Arc Welding. • Welding can be mechanized.
3. Resistance Welding 5. Thermo-Chemical Welding Processes
 Thermit Welding DISADVANTAGES 0F WELDING
 Spot Welding
 Seam Welding  Atomic Hydrogen Welding. • Welding gives out harmful radiations (light), fumes and spatter.
 Projection Welding 6. Radiant Energy Welding Processes • Welding results in residual stresses and distortion of the work-pieces.
 Resistance Butt Welding • Edge preparation of the workpieces is generally required before welding them.
 Electron Beam Welding
 Flash Butt Welding • A skilled welder is a must to produce a good welding job.
 Percussion Welding  Laser Beam Welding.
• Welding heat produces metallurgical changes. The structure of the welded joint
 High Frequency Resistance
Welding. is not same as that of the parent metal.
• A welded joint, for many reasons, needs stress-relief heat-treatment.

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PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF WELDING 3. Bridges

• Welding has been employed in Industry as a tool for: • Section lengths.
– Regular fabrication of automobile cars, air-crafts, refrigerators, etc. • Shop and field assembly of lengths, etc.
– Repair and maintenance work, e.g., joining broken parts, rebuilding worn out 4. Buildings
components, etc. • Column base plates
• A few important applications of welding are listed below: • Trusses
1. Aircraft Construction • formation of structure, etc.
• Welded engine mounts. 5. Pressure Vessels and Tanks
• Turbine frame for jet engine. • Clad and lined steel plates
• Rocket motor fuel and oxidizer tanks. • Shell construction
• Ducts, fittings, cowling components, etc. • Joining of nozzles to the shell, etc.
2. Automobile Construction 6. Storage Tanks
• Arc welded car wheels • Oil, gas and water storage tanks.
• Steel rear axle housing. 7. Rail Road Equipment Locomotive
• Frame side rails. • Under frame
• Automobile frame, brackets, etc. • Air receiver
• Engine
• Front and rear hoods, etc.

8. Pipings and Pipelines ARC WELDING PROCESS

• Rolled plate piping • Arc welding process is fusion method of welding that utilizes the high intensity
• Open pipe joints, of the arc generated by the flow of current to melt the workpieces.
• Oil gas and gasoline pipe lines, etc.
• A solid continuous joint is formed upon cooling.
9. Ships
• Shell frames.
• Deck beams and bulkhead stiffeners.
• Girders to shells
• Bulkhead webs to plating, etc.
10. Trucks and trailers.
11. Machine tool frames, cutting tools and dies.
12. Household and office furniture.
13. Earth moving machinery and cranes.
In addition, arc welding finds following applications in repair and maintenance
work:
14. Repair of broken and damaged components and machinery such as tools,
punches, dies, gears, shears, press and machine tools frames.
15. Hard-facing and rebuilding of worn out or undersized (costly) parts rejected
during inspection.
16. Fabrication of jigs, fixtures, clamps and other work holding devices.

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PRINCIPLE 1. METALLIC ARC WELDING (MAW)

• The source of heat for arc welding process is an 'electric arc' generated between • In metallic arc welding an arc is established between work and the filler
two electrically conducting materials.
metal electrode.
• One of the workpiece material called 'electrode' is connected to one pole of the
electric circuit, while the other workpiece which forms the second conducting • The intense heat of the arc forms a molten pool in the metal being welded,
material is connected to the other pole of the circuit. and at the same time melts the tip of the electrode.
• When the tip of the electrode material is brought in contact with the workpiece • As the arc is maintained, molten filler metal from the electrode tip is
material and momentarily separated by small distance of 2-4 mm, an arc can be
generated. transferred across the arc, where it fuses with the molten base metal.
• The electrical energy is thus converted to heat energy. • Arc may be formed with direct or alternating current.
• The high heat of the arc melts the edges of the workpieces. • Petrol or diesel driven generators are widely used for welding in open, where
• Coalescence takes place where the molten metal of the one workpiece a normal electricity supply may not be available.
combines with the molten metal of the other workpiece.
• When the coalesced liquid solidifies, the two workpieces join together to form a
single component.
• The electrode material can be either a non-consumable material or a
Consumable material.
• The non-consumable electrode made of tungsten, graphite etc., serve only to
strike the arc and is not consumed during the welding process.
• Whereas, the consumable electrode which is made of the same material as that
of the workpiece metal helps to strike the arc and at the same time melt (gets
consumed) and combines with the molten metal of the workpiece to form a
weld.

METALLIC ARC WELDING (MAW) ( continued…….) 2. CARBON ARC WELDING

• A simple transformer however widely employed for A.C. arc welding. • Here the work is connected to negative and the carbon rod or electrode
• The transformer sets are cheaper and simple having no maintenance cost as connected to the positive of the electric circuit.
there are no moving parts. • Arc is formed in the gap, filling metal is supplied by fusing a rod or wire into the
• With AC system, the covered or coated electrodes are used, whereas with D.C. arc by allowing the current to jump over it and it produces a porous and brittle
system for cast iron and non-ferrous metals, bare electrodes can be used. weld because of inclusion of carbon particles in the molten metal.
• In order to strike the arc an open circuit voltage of between 60 to 70 volts is • The voltage required for striking an arc with carbon electrodes is about 30 volts
required. (A.C.) and 40 volts (D.C).
• For maintaining the short arc 17 to 25 volts are necessary. • A disadvantage of carbon arc welding is that approximately twice the current is
• The current required for welding, however, varies from 10 amp. to 500 amp. required to raise the work to welding temperature as compared with a metal
depending upon the class of work to be welded. electrode, while a carbon electrode can only be used economically on D.C. supply.

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3. FLUX SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (MMAW OR SMAW)

a. Definition: SMAW Equipment Set Up
• It is an arc welding process wherein coalescence is produced by heating the
workpiece with an electric arc set up between a flux coated electrode and the
workpiece. 1. Turn power supply on 4. Adjust output
• The flux covering decomposes due to arc heat and performs many functions, like 2. Connect work clamp a. Polarity
arc stability, weld metal protection, etc., 3. Select electrode b. Amperage
• The electrode itself melts and supplies the necessary filler metal. a. Type 5. Insert electrode into electrode
b. Diameter holder

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b. Principle of the process:

SMAW Process Variables • Heat required for welding is obtained from the arc struck between a coated
electrode and the workpiece.
• The arc temperature and thus the arc heat can be increased or decreased by
• Settings on the machine employing higher or lower arc currents.
• A high current arc with a smaller arc length produces very intense heat.
– Polarity : AC, DC+,
• The arc melts the electrode end and the job.
DC- • Material droplets are transferred from the electrode to the job, through the
– Amperage Output arc, and are deposited along the joint to be welded.
• The flux coating melts, produces a gaseous shield and slag to prevent
• Operator Controlled atmospheric contamination of the molten weld metal.
Variables c. Striking the arc:
In manual metal arc welding (MMAW), arc between the electrode and the
– Work Angle workpiece is generally struck either by momentarily touching the electrode
– Travel Angle with the workpiece and taking it (electrode) a predetermined distance away
from the workpiece by the wrist motion or by scratching the electrode on the
– Arc Length A straight AC machine will
not have a polarity switch job in the arc of a circle.
– Travel Speed like this AC/DC machine d. Electrode holder:
• It can hold the electrode at various angles and energizes it at the same time.
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e. Welding the joint Advantages of Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

• Once the arc has been established and the arc length adjusted, the electrode is • SMAW is the simplest of all the arc welding processes.
inclined to an, angle of approximately 20 degrees with the vertical.
• The equipment can be portable and the cost is fairly low.
• To achieve comparatively deeper penetration, electrode angle with the vertical is
further reduced. • This process finds innumerable applications, because of the availability of a wide
• The electrode is progressed along the joint at a constant speed, it is lowered, at variety of electrodes.
the same time, at a rate at which it is melting. • A big range of metals and their alloys can be welded.
f. Welding Equipment: • Welding can be carried out in any position with highest weld quality.
– AC or DC welding supply, electrode holder and welding cables. Limitations
– Welding electrodes. • Because of the limited length of each electrode and brittle flux coating on it,
• AC transformers and DC generators or rectifiers can be employed for welding mechanization is difficult.
with covered electrodes.
• In welding long joints (e.g., in pressure vessels), as one electrode finishes, the
• Both AC and DC power sources produce good quality welds, but depending upon weld is to be progressed with the next electrode. Unless properly cared, a defect
welding situation one may be preferred over the other.
(like slag inclusion or insufficient penetration) may occur at the place where
• The most commonly used power source for AC welding is a transformer. welding is restarted with new electrode.
• A transformer may be operated from the mains on single phase, two phases or
three phases. • The process uses stick electrodes and thus it is slower as compared to MIG
welding.
• A typical specification for the transformer is as follows:
– Current range up to 600 Amps. • Because of flux coated electrodes, the chances of slag entrapment and other
related-defects are more as compared to MIG or TIG welding.
– Open circuit voltage 70 to 100 volts.

Applications A.C. Welding D.C. Welding

1. At higher currents AC gives a smoother 1. DC arc is more stable.
• Today, almost all the commonly employed metals and their alloys can be welded
arc. 2. DC is preferred for welding
by this process.
2. Once established the arc can be easily certain non-ferrous metals and
• Shielded metal arc welding is used both as a fabrication process and for alloys.
maintenance and repair jobs. maintained and controlled.
3. It has lower open circuit
• The process finds applications in 3. It is suitable for welding thicker sections. voltage and therefore is safer.
– Air receiver, tank, boiler and pressure vessel fabrications; 4. AC is easily available. 4. ARC heat can be regulated (i.e.,
– Shipbuilding; 5. AC welding power source has no rotating through DCRP and DCSP)
parts. 5. A DC welding equipment is
– Pipes and Penstock joining;
6. It does not produce noise. a self contained unit. It can be
– Building and Bridge construction; operated in fields where power
7. It occupies less space
– Automotive and Aircraft industry, etc. supply is not available
8. It is less costly to purchase and maintain. 6. DC welding power source
9. It possesses high efficiency (0.8). is a transformer-rectifier unit
10.It consumes less energy per unit weight of or a DC generator (motor or
deposited metal. engine driven)
11.Melting rate of electrode cannot be
controlled in AC as equal heat generates at
electrode and job.
12.An AC welding power source is Transformer

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Striking an Arc and Making a Weld Work Angle

• To begin the SMAW Process, you must first strike an
arc. This can be done using one of the following • The work angle is the
techniques: angle between the
– Scratch start – scratch the electrode on the base metal like a electrode and the work
match as depicted on the left
– Tap Start – tap the rod against the base metal
90° • Work angles can vary
depending on the
position the weld is
being made

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Travel Angle Arc Length

• The travel (lead) angle • After striking the arc, maintain a 1/8” distance
is the angle between between the electrode and the workpiece
the electrode and the – If the arc length becomes too short, the electrode will get
20-30° plane perpendicular to stuck to the workpiece or ‘short out’
the weld axis – If the arc length becomes too long; spatter, undercut, and
porosity can occur

Arc Length = 1/8”

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Travel Speed Filling the Crater

• The travel speed is the • At the end of the weld, the operator breaks
speed at which the End of Weld

electrode moves along the

the arc which creates a ‘crater’
base material while • Use a short pause or slight back step at the
welding end of the weld to fill the crater
– Too fast of a travel speed
results in a convex weld • Large craters can cause weld cracking
– Too slow of a travel speed The travel speed impacts the
results in a wide weld with shape of the bead. Back stepping is a short
an excessive metal deposit move in the opposite
direction of weld travel

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Restarting a Bead
SMAW - DC Polarity

• Here is the proper technique for restarting a Straight Polarity Reverse Polarity
weld: (–) (+)
1. Strike Arc Here

2. Move Electrode to (+) (–)

Crown of Crater
Shallow penetration Deeper weld penetration
3. Resume Forward (thin metal)
Travel

AC - Gives pulsing arc

- used for welding thick sections

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TUNGSTEN INERT GAS WELDING (TIG)

Troubleshooting Welds • Tungsten inert gas welding or gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is a group of
welding process in which the workpieces are joined by the heat obtained from an
electric arc struck between a non-consumable tungsten electrode and the
A B C D E F G
workpiece in the presence of an inert gas atmosphere.
• A filler metal may be added if required, during the welding process.
• Figure shows the TIG process.

These welds were cut and etched

with nitric acid to show penetration

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Description Operation
• TIG equipment consists of a welding torch in which a non-consumable • The workpieces to be joined are cleaned to remove dirt, grease and other
oxides chemically or mechanically to obtain a sound weld.
tungsten alloy electrode is held rigidly in the collet. • The welding current and inert gas supply are turned ON.
• The diameter of the electrode varies from 0.5 - 6.4 mm. • An arc is struck by touching the tip of the tungsten electrode with the
• TIG welding makes use of a shielding gas like argon or helium to protect workpiece and instantaneously the electrode is separated from the
the welding area from atmospheric gases such as oxygen and nitrogen, workpiece by a small distance of 1.5 - 3 mm such that the arc still remains
between the electrode and the workpiece.
otherwise which may cause fusion defects and porosity in the weld metal.
• The high intensity of the arc melts the workpiece metal forming a small
• The shielding gas flow from the cylinder, through the passage in the molten metal pool.
electrode holder and then impinges on the workpiece. • Filler metal in the form of a rod is added manually to the front end of the
• Pressure regulator and flow meters are used to regulate the pressure and weld pool.
flow of gas from the cylinder. • The deposited filler metal fills and bonds the joint to form a single piece
of metal
• Either AC or DC can be used to supply the required current. • The shielding gas is allowed to impinge on the solidifying weld pool for a
few seconds even after the arc is extinguished (shut off)
• This will avoid atmospheric contamination of the solidifying metal thereby
increasing the strength of the joint.

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Advantages METAL INERT GAS (MIG) WELDING

• Suitable for thin metals. • Metal inert gas welding or gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is a group of arc
welding process in which the workpieces are joined by the heat obtained from an
• Clear visibility of the arc provides the operator to have a greater control
electric arc struck between a bare (uncoated) consumable electrode and the
over the weld. workpiece in the presence of an inert gas atmosphere.
• Strong and high quality joints are obtained. • The consumable electrode acts as a filler metal to fill the gap between the two
• No flux is used. Hence, no slag formation. This results in clean weld joints. workpieces.
Disadvantages • Figure shows the MIG welding process.
• TIG is the most difficult process compared to all the other welding
processes. The welder must maintain short arc length, avoid contact
between electrode and the workpiece and manually feed the filler metal
with one hand while manipulating the torch with the other hand.
• Tungsten material when gets transferred into the molten metal
contaminates the same leading to a hard and brittle joint.
• Skilled operator is required.
• Process is slower.
• Not suitable for thick metals.

Description Operation
• The equipment consists of a welding torch in which a bare consumable electrode • The workpieces to be joined are cleaned to remove dust, grease and other oxides
in the form of a wire is held and guided by a guide tube. chemically or mechanically to obtain a sound weld. The tip of the electrode is also
• The electrode material used in MIG welding is of the same material or nearly the cleaned with a wire brush.
same chemical composition as that of the base metal. • The control switch provided in the welding torch is switched ON to initiate the
• Its diameter varies from 0.7 -2.4 mm. electric power, shielding gas and the wire (electrode) feed.
• The electrode is fed continuously at a constant rate through feed rollers driven by • An arc is struck by touching the tip of the electrode with the workpiece and
an electric motor. instantaneously the electrode is separated from the workpiece by a small distance
• MIG makes use of shielding gas to prevent atmospheric contamination of the of 1.5-3 mm such that the arc still remains between the electrode and the
molten weld pool. workpiece.
• Mixture of argon and carbon dioxide in a order of 75% to 25% or 80% to 20% is • The high intensity of the arc melts the workpiece metal forming a small molten
commonly used. pool.
• The shielding gas flow from the cylinder, through the passage in the electrode • At the same time, the tip of the electrode also melts and combines with the
holder and then impinges on the workpiece. molten metal of the workpieces thereby filling the gap between the two
workpieces.
• AC is rarely used with MIG welding; instead DC is employed and the electrode is
positively charged. This results in faster melting of the electrode which increases • The deposited metal upon solidification bonds the joint to form a single piece of
weld penetration and welding speed. metal.

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Advantages
• MIG welding is fast and economical. Why Used Flux Cored Arc Welding
• The electrode and inert gas are automatically fed, and this makes the operator • High-quality weld deposit with excellent appearance
easy and to concentrate on the arc.
• Weld deposition rate is high due to the continuous wire feed • Can be used to join many types of metals over a wide thickness range
• No flux is used. Hence, no slag formation. This results in clean welds.
• Thin and thick metals can be welded. • Relatively high electrode efficiency and process duty cycle
• Process can be automated.
Disadvantages • Excellent weld penetration simplifies joint design
• Equipment is costlier
• Porosity (gas entrapment in weld pool) is the most common quality problem in • The arc is visible and easy to use
this process. However, extensive edge preparation can eliminate this defect.
• Due to greater tolerance for base plate contamination, Flux Cored
Welding requires less pre-cleaning than MIG

• Deposition rate is up to four times greater than Stick Welding

• The use of self-shielded electrodes eliminates the need for flux handling
or gas apparatus, hence mainly used in outdoor construction

FEATURES OF FLUX CORED ELECTRODES Flux Cored Arc Working Process

• Flux cored electrodes may be used for welding carbon steels
• Low alloy high strength steels
• High strength quenched and tempered steels
• Welding stainless steels and abrasion resistant steels
• Self-shielded - core provides ingredients for shielding
• Gas-shielded - uses external shielding gases

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Apparatus FCAW Welding

Shielding Gases for FCAW FCAW Electrode

• In the case of dual shielding being used with a
flux cored electrode the choices of shielding • Flux cored electrodes are tubular
gasses are limited. The choices are as follows: • Hollow tube with flux in the center
• CO2 – Carbon dioxide • Flux cored electrodes come in standard sizes
• Ar – Argon as .035, .045, .052, 1/16
• CO2 / Ar – A mixture of the two
• Ar / Ox – A mixture of the two

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Process Variables
Welding on Materials
• Wire feed speed (and current)
• Arc voltage
• Electrode extension
• Mild and low alloy steels
• Travel speed and angle • Stainless steels
• Electrode angles • Some high nickel alloys
• Electrode wire type
• Shielding gas composition (if required)
• Some wear facing/surfacing alloys
• Reverse polarity (Electrode Positive) is used for FCAW Gas- • Porosity chances very low
Shielded wire, Straight polarity (Electrode Negative) is used
for self shielded FCAW

Disadvantage
Advantages • Melted Contact Tip – happens when the contact tip actually contacts the
base metal, thereby fusing the two and melting the hole on the end
• FCAW may be an "all-position" process with the right filler metals • Irregular wire feed – typically a mechanical problem
(the consumable electrode) • Porosity – the gases (specifically those from the flux-core) don’t escape
• No shielding gas needed with some wires making it suitable for the welded area before the metal hardens, leaving holes in the welded
outdoor welding and/or windy conditions metal
• A high-deposition rate process (speed at which the filler metal is
applied) • More costly filler material/wire as compared to GMAW
• Used in "high-speed" (e.g., automotive) applications • The equipment is less mobile and more costly as compared to SMAW or
• As compared to SMAW and GTAW, there is less skill required for GTAW.
operators. • The amount of smoke generated can far exceed that of SMAW, GMAW, or
• Less pre cleaning of metal required GTAW.
• Metallurgical benefits from the flux such as the weld metal being • Changing filler metals requires changing an entire spool. This can be slow
protected initially from external factors until the slag is chipped and difficult as compared to changing filler metal for SMAW or GTAW.
away • Creates more fumes than stick welding
• FCAW requires with or without shielding gas
• Thin plate does not weld by FCAW
• A slight change in a knob position can make a big difference in the arc

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SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)

• Submerged arc welding is a group of arc welding process in which the workpieces
Application are joined by the heat obtained from an electric arc struck between a bare
consumable electrode and workpiece.
• The arc is struck beneath a covering layer of granulated flux.
• High production rate
• Thus, the arc zone and the molten weld pool are protected from atmospheric
• flux core welding can weld 1/2" plates in a single pass with full penetration contamination by being 'submerged under a blanket of granular flux.
on both sides
• This gives the name 'submerged arc welding' to the process.
• Flux core welding produces high quality welds, fast and even when in
• Figure shows the submerged arc welding process.
windy conditions.
• Used in the ship building industry. Ships are made of heavy plate

Description Operation
• Edge preparation is carried out to obtain a sound weld.
• The equipment consists of a welding head carrying a bare consumable • Flux is deposited at the joint to be welded
electrode and a flux tube. • Welding current is witched ON.
• The flux tube remains ahead of the electrode, stores the granulated or • An arc is struck between the electrode and the workpiece under the layer of
powdered flux, and drops the same on the joint to be welded. flux.
• The flux covers the arc thereby increasing the heat near the weld zone.
• The flux shields and protects the molten weld metal from atmospheric • This heat melts the filler metal and the workpiece metal forming a molten weld
contamination. pool.
• The electrode which is bare (uncoated) and in the form of wire is fed • At the same time, a portion of the flux melts and reacts with the molten weld
pool to form a slag.
continuously through feed rollers.
• The slag floats on the surface providing thermal insulation to the molten metal
• It is usually copper plated to prevent rusting and to increase its electrical thereby allowing it to cool slowly.
conductivity (since it is submerged under flux). • The welding head is moved along the surface to be welded and the continuously
fed electrode completes the weld.
• The diameter of the electrode ranges from 1.6-8 mm and the electrode • The un-melted flux is collected by a suction pipe and reused.
material depends on the type of the work piece metal being welded. • The layer of slag on the surface of the weld portion is chipped out and the weld
• The process makes use of either AC or DC for supplying the required is finished.
current. • Since the weld pool is covered by flux, solidification of molten metal is slow.
Hence, a backing plate made from copper or steel is used at the bottom of the
joint to support the molten metal until solidification is complete.

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Advantages
Welding Variables • High productivity process, due to high heat concentration.
• Weld deposition rate is high due to continuous wire feed. Hence, single pass
welds can be made in thick plates.
• Deep weld penetration.
• The electrode type and the flux type • Less smoke, as the flux hides the arc. Hence, improved working conditions.
• The electrode size • Can be automated
• The number of passes or beads for a particular joint. • Process is best suitable for outdoor works and in areas with relatively high winds.
• Polarity • There is no chance of spatter of molten metal, as the arc is beneath the flux.
• Welding current, Disadvantages
• Arc voltage, and • The invisible arc and the weld zone make the operator difficult to judge the
• Travel speed. progress of welding.
• Use of powdered flux restricts the process to be carried only in flat positions.
• Slow cooling rates may lead to hot cracking defects.
• Need for extensive flux handling.

ATOMIC HYDROGEN WELDING (AHW) Description

• Atomic hydrogen welding is a thermo-chemical welding process in which the • The equipment consists of a welding torch with two tungsten electrodes
workpieces are joined by the heat obtained on passing a stream of hydrogen inclined and adjusted to maintain a stable arc.
through an electric arc struck between two tungsten electrodes. • Annular nozzles around the tungsten electrodes carry the hydrogen gas
supplied from the gas cylinders.
• The arc supplies the energy for a chemical reaction to take place.
• AC power source is suitable compared to DC, because equal amount of
• Filler rod may or may not be used during the process. heat will be available at both the electrodes.
• Figure shows the arrangement for atomic welding process. • A transformer with an open circuit voltage of 300 volts is required to
strike and maintain the arc.
Operation
• The workpieces are cleaned to remove dirt, oxides and other impurities to
obtain a sound weld. Hydrogen gas supply and welding current are
switched ON.
• An arc is struck by bringing the two tungsten electrodes in contact with
each other and, instantaneously separated by a small distance, say 1.5
mm, such that the arc still remains between the two electrodes.
• As the jet of hydrogen gas passes through the electric arc, it dissociates
into atomic hydrogen by absorbing large amounts of heat supplied by the
electric arc.
(endothermic reaction)
• The heat thus absorbed can be released by recombination of the
hydrogen atoms into hydrogen molecule (H2 ).

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• Recombination takes place as the atomic hydrogen touches the cold Advantages
workpiece liberating a large amount of heat. • Intense flame is obtained which can be concentrated at the joint. Hence, less
H + H  H2 + 422kJ (exothermic reaction) distortion.
• Welding is faster.
• Note: The hydrogen can be thought of as simply a transport mechanism to
extract energy from the arc, and transfer it to the work. • Workpiece do not form a part of the electric circuit. Hence, problems like striking
the arc and maintaining the arc column are eliminated.
• A arc is produced due to the heat liberated during the chemical reaction.
• Separate flux/shielding gas is not required. The hydrogen envelope itself prevents
A feature of the arc is the speed by which it can deliver heat to the
oxidation of the metal and the tungsten electrode. It also reduces the risk of
workpiece surface. nitrogen pick-up.
• The welding torch is moved along the surface to be welded with the arc Disadvantage
tip touching the surface. • Cost of welding by this process is slightly higher than with the other processes.
• The heat of the arc melts and fuses the workpiece and the filler metal to • Welding is limited to flat positions only.
form a joint.
• The operator can control the heat by varying the distance of the arc
stream between the two electrodes and the distance between the
workpiece.

GAS WELDING OXY ACETYLENE WELDING

Definition Principle of Operation
• Gas welding is a fusion-welding process.
• When acetylene is mixed with oxygen in correct proportions in the welding torch
• It joins metals, using the heat of combustion of an oxygen/air and fuel gas (i.e. and ignited, the flame resulting at the tip of the torch is sufficiently hot to melt
acetylene, hydrogen, propane or butane) mixture.
and join the parent metal.
• The intense heat (flame) thus produced melts and fuses together the edges of the
parts to be welded, generally with the addition of a filler metal. • The oxy-acetylene flame reaches a temperature of about 3200°C and thus can
melt all commercial metals which, during welding, actually flow together to form
Principle of gas welding
a complete bond.
• When the fuel gas and oxygen are mixed in suitable proportions in a welding
torch and ignited the flame resulting at the tip of the torch is sufficient enough to • A filler metal rod is generally added to the molten metal pool to build up the
melt the edges of the workpiece metals. seam slightly for greater strength.
• A solid continuous joint is formed upon cooling.
• The two familiar fuel gases used in gas welding are:
– Mixture of oxygen and acetylene gas -called oxy-acetylene welding process.
– Mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gas - called oxy-hydrogen welding process.
• Oxy-acetylene welding is the most versatile and widely used gas welding process
due to its high flame temperature (up to 3500oC) when compared to that of oxy
hydrogen process (up to 2500oC)
Note: Oxygen is not a fuel: It is what chemically combines with the fuel gas to
produce the heat for welding. This is called 'oxidation', but the more general
and commonly used term is 'combustion'.

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Description and Operation Advantages of Gas Welding

• The equipment consists of two large cylinders: one containing oxygen at high • It is probably the most versatile process. It can be applied to a wide variety of
manufacturing and maintenance situations.
pressure and the other containing acetylene gas.
• Welder has considerable control over the temperature of the metal in the weld
• Two pressure regulators fitted on the respective cylinders regulates or controls zone.
the pressure of the gas flowing from the cylinders to the welding torch as per the • The rate of heating and cooling is relatively slow. In some cases, this is an
requirements. advantage.
• The welding torch is used to mix both oxygen and acetylene gas in proper • Since the sources of heat and of filler metal are separate, the welder has control
over filler-metal deposition rates.
proportions and burn the mixture at its tip.
• The equipment is versatile, low cost, and usually portable.
• A match stick or a spark lighter may be used to ignite the mixture at the torch tip. • The cost and maintenance of the gas welding equipment is low when compared
• The resulting flame at the tip has a temperature ranging from 3200°C - 3500°C to that of some other welding processes.
and this heat is sufficient enough to melt the workpiece metal. Advantages of Gas Welding
• Since a slight gap usually exists between the two workpieces, a filler metal is • Heavy sections cannot be joined economically.
used to supply the additional material to fill the gap. • Flame temperature is less than the temperature of the arc.
• Fluxes used in certain welding and brazing operations produce fumes that are
• The filler metal must be of the same material or nearly the same chemical irritating to the eyes, nose, throat and lungs.
composition as that of the workpiece material. • Gas flame takes a long time to heat up the metal than an arc.
• The molten metal of the filler metal combines with the molten metal of the • More safety problems are associated with the handling and storing of gases.
workpiece and upon solidification form a single piece of metal. • Acetylene and oxygen gases are rather expensive.
• Flux, if required, may be used during the process. It can be directly applied to the • Flux shielding in gas welding is not so effective as an inert gas shielding in TIG or
surface of the workpiece or, the heated end of the filler metal may be dipped in a MIG welding.
flux material and used.

REACTIONS IN GAS WELDING 2) Second stage combustion

• When suitable proportions of oxygen and acetylene are mixed and ignited at the • The reactions are as follows:
torch tip, a flame with a temperature of about 3200°C is produced. 2CO + 02 -> 2C02
• For complete combustion to take place, two volumes of acetylene is combined and
with five volumes of oxygen. The reaction is given below: H2 + 0.5O2->H2O
2C2H2+502->4C02 + 2H20 2/3 of total heat generation
• Complete combustion takes place in two stages. • Carbon monoxide burns and forms carbon dioxide, while hydrogen combines with
1) First stage combustion oxygen to form water.
• The combustion is therefore complete and carbon dioxide and water (turned to
• considering one volume of each oxygen and acetylene. steam) are the chief products of combustion.
C2H2 + 02 -> 2CO + H2 + heat 2) Second stage combustion
(1/3 of total heat generation) • The reactions are as follows:
• This is an exothermic reaction that produces CO and H2 as products of the first 2CO + 02 -> 2C02
stage of combustion. and
H2 + 0.5O2->H2O
2/3 of total heat generation
• Carbon monoxide burns and forms carbon dioxide, while hydrogen combines with
oxygen to form water.

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FLAME CHARACTERISTICS a) Neutral Flame

Types of flames • A neutral flame is produced when approximately equal volumes of oxygen and
a) Neutral Flame acetylene are mixed in the welding torch and burnt at the torch tip. (More
b) Oxidizing Flame accurately the oxygen-to-acetylene ratio is 1.1 to 1).
• The temperature of the neutral flame is of the order of about 3260°C
c) Reducing Flame (carburizing flame)
• The flame has a nicely defined inner cone which is light blue in color. It is
surrounded by an outer flame envelope, produced by the combination of oxygen
in the air and superheated carbon monoxide and hydrogen gases from the inner
cone. This envelope is usually a much darker blue than the inner cone.
• A neutral flame is named so because it affects no chemical change on the molten
metal and, therefore, will not oxidize or carburize the metal.
• The neutral flame is commonly used for the welding of:
– Mild steel
– Cast Iron
– Stainless steel
– Copper
– Aluminium

b) Oxidizing Flame (O2 : C2H2 = 1.5 : 1) c) Reducing Flame

• If, after the neutral flame has been established, the supply of oxygen is further • If the volume of oxygen supplied to the neutral flame is reduced, the resulting
increased, the result will be an oxidizing flame. flame will be a carburizing or reducing flame, i.e., rich in acetylene.
• An oxidizing flame can be recognized by the small cone which is shorter, much • A reducing flame can be recognized by acetylene feather which exists between
the inner cone and the outer envelope.
bluer in color and more pointed than that of the neutral flame.
• The outer flame envelope is longer than that of the neutral flame and is usually
• The outer flame envelope is much shorter and tends to fan out (disperse) at the much brighter in color.
end. • A reducing flame does not completely consume the available carbon; therefore,
• An oxidizing flame tends to be hotter than the neutral flame. This is because of its burning temperature is lower and the leftover carbon is forced into the
excess oxygen and which causes the temperature to rise as high. molten metal. With iron and steel it produces very hard, brittle substance known
• The excess oxygen, tends to combine with many metals to form hard, brittle, low as iron carbide.
strength oxides. • This chemical change makes the metal unfit for many applications in which the
weld may need to be bent or stretched.
• Moreover, an excess of oxygen causes the weld bead and the surrounding area to
have a scummy or dirty appearance. • Metals that tend to absorb carbon should not be
welded with reducing flame.
• For these reasons, an oxidizing flame is of limited use in welding. It is not used in
• A reducing flame has an approximate temperature
the welding of steel.
of 3038°C.
• A slightly oxidizing flame is helpful when welding most
– Copper-base metals
– Zinc-base metals

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d) Carburizing flame The Oxy-acetylene welding Flame

• A reducing flame may be distinguished from carburizing flame by the fact that a
carburizing flame contains more acetylene than a reducing flame.
• A carburizing flame is used in the welding of lead and for carburizing (surface
hardening) purposes.
• A reducing flame, on the other hand, does not carburize the metal, rather it
ensures the absence of the oxidizing condition. It is used for welding with low
alloy steel rods and for welding those metals, (e.g. non-ferrous) that do not tend
to absorb carbon.
• This flame is very well used for welding high carbon steel.
Carburising Neutral Oxidising
To conclude, for most welding operations, the Neutral Flame is
correct, but the other types of flames are sometimes needed for
special welds, e.g., non-ferrous alloys and high carbon steels may
require a reducing flame, whilst zinc-bearing alloys may need an
oxidizing flame for welding purposes.

Welding Techniques Leftward Technique

• Depending upon the ways in which welding rod and the welding torch may be • The welder holds welding torch in his right hand and filler rod in the left
used, there are two usual techniques in gas welding, namely: hand.
– Leftward technique or Forehand welding method. • The welding flame is directed away from the finished weld, i.e., towards the
– Rightward technique or Back hand welding method. un-welded part of the joint. Filler rod, when used, is directed towards the
welded part of the joint (Fig.).
• The weld is commenced on the right-hand side of the seam, working
towards the left-hand side.
• The blowpipe or welding torch is given small sideways movements, while
the filler rod is moved steadily across the seam.
• The filler rod is added using a backward and forward movement of the rod,
allowing the flame to melt the bottom edges of the plate just ahead of the
weld pool.

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Leftward Technique (Continued…..) Rightward Technique

• Since the flame is pointed in the direction of the Welding, it preheats the edges • Here again the welding torch is held in the right hand of the welder and the filler
of the joint. rod in the left hand.
• Good control and a neat appearance are characteristics of the leftward method. • Welding begins at the left-hand end of the joint and proceeds towards the
Leftward technique is usually used on relatively thin metals, i.e., having right, hence the name rightward technique.
thicknesses less than 5 mm. • The direction of welding is opposite to that when employing the leftward
technique.
• When workpiece thickness is over 3 mm, it is necessary to bevel the plate edges • The torch flame in rightward technique is directed towards the completed weld
to produce a V-joint so that good root fusion may be achieved. and the filler rod remains between the flame and the completed weld section
• The included angle of V-joint is 80-90°. (Fig.).
• When welding materials over 6.5 mm thick, it is difficult to obtain even • Since the flame is constantly directed on the edges of the V ahead of the weld
penetration at the bottom of the V and, therefore, the quality of the weld puddle (Molten metal pool) , no sidewise motion of the welding torch is
decreases as plate thickness increases. necessary. As a result, a narrower V-groove (30° bevel or 60° included angle) can
be utilized than in leftward welding. This provides a greater control and reduced
• The leftward technique requires careful manipulation to guard against excessive welding costs.
melting of the base metal, which results in considerable mixing of base metal
and filler metal. • During welding, the filler rod may be moved in circles
(within the puddle) or semicircles (back and forth
around the puddle).
• The rightward technique is one used on heavier or
thicker (above 5 mm) base metals, because in this
technique the heat is concentrated into the metal.
Welds with penetrations of approximately 12 mm can
be achieved in a single pass.

• Rightward technique has got certain advantages over the leftward one, as Welding Torch or Blow Pipe
listed below: • Oxygen and the fuel gas having been reduced in pressure by the gas regulators
– Up to 8.2 mm plate thickness, no bevel is necessary. This saves the are fed through suitable hoses to a welding torch which mixes and controls the
cost of preparation and reduces the consumption of filler rod. flow of gases to the welding nozzle or tip where the gas mixture is burnt to
– For welding bigger thicknesses, where beveling of plate edges produce a flame for carrying out gas welding operation.
becomes necessary, the included angle of V need be only 60°, which • There are two types of welding torches, namely:
requires less filler metal against 80°V preparation used in leftward – High pressure (or equal pressure) type.
welding technique.
– Low pressure (or injector) type.
– The welder's view of the weld pool and the sides and bottom of the V
• High pressure blow-pipes or torches are used with (dissolved) acetylene stored in
groove is unobstructed. This results in better control and higher
cylinders at a pressure of 8 bar.
welding speeds.
• Low pressure blow-pipes are used with acetylene obtained from an acetylene
– The smaller total volume of deposited metal, as compared to leftward
generator at a pressure of 200 mm head of water (approximately 0.02 bar).
welding, reduces shrinkage and distortion.
– The weld quality is better than that obtained with the leftward
technique.
– Owing to less consumption of the filler metal, the rightward technique
involves lower cost of welding than leftward technique.

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Working of a low pressure blow-pipe

• It is termed as a low pressure blow-pipe because it can be operated at low
acetylene pressure; it is frequently used with acetylene generators.
• As acetylene is of low pressure, it is necessary to use oxygen at a high
pressure (2.5 bar).
• As shown in fig., the oxygen enters the mixing chamber through a passage
located in the centre of the torch. The oxygen passage is surrounded by the
acetylene. The high pressure oxygen passes through a small opening in the
injector nozzle, enters the mixing chamber and pulls (or draws) the
acetylene in after it.
• An advantage of low pressure torch is that small fluctuations in the oxygen
supplied to it will produce a corresponding change in the amount of
acetylene drawn, thereby making the proportions of the two gases constant
while the torch is in operation.

Working of a high pressure blow-pipe

• In this type of blow-pipe, both the oxygen and acetylene are fed to the blow pipe
at equal pressures and the gases are mixed in a mixing chamber prior to being Soldering and Brazing
fed to the nozzle tip.
• The equal pressure or high pressure type of blow-pipe is the one most generally
used because • One of first metals used
– It is lighter and simpler. – Tools, weapons, decorative
– It does not need an injector. – Durable and resistant to
– In operation, it is less troublesome since it does not suffer from backfires to corrosion
the same extent. • Today used in pipes and tubing
• To change the power of the welding torch, it is only necessary to change the – Light, strong, corrosion resistant
nozzle tip (size) and increase or decrease the gas pressures appropriately.
– Available in hard and soft tempers
• Joints made simply by soldering and brazing

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Brazing
• It is a joining process in which a filler metal is melted and Braze Welding
distributed by capillary action between the faying (contact)
surfaces of the metal parts being joined.
Steps in Braze Welding

• Base material does not melt in brazing, only the filler melts. 1) Base material is cleaned
2) Flux is applied
• In brazing, the filler metal has a melting temperature (liquidus) 3) Heat is applied
above 450 C, but below the melting point (solidus) of base 4) Braze is added
metals to be joined. 5) Braze material is added into
a joint. Capillary Action is not
used.
• Filler metal distributes between closely fitted surfaced of joint 6) Post Braze weld is cleaned
by capillary action

Brazing fluxes
Filler materials used for brazing
Characteristics of a good flux include,

(1) low melting temperature,

(2) low viscosity so that it can be displaced by the filler metal,

(3) facilitates wetting, and

(4) protects the joint until solidification of the filler metal.

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Furnace Brazing
On the basis of method of heating, various brazing process are:

Torch brazing
• Flux is applied to the part surfaces and a torch is used to direct a
flame against the work in the vicinity of the joint.
• After the workpart joint areas have been heated to a suitable
temperature, filler wire is added to the joint, usually in wire or rod
form.
• Fuels used in torch brazing include acetylene, propane, and other
gases, with air or oxygen.
• Torch brazing is often performed manually, and skilled workers
must be employed.

DIP Brazing Diffusion Brazing

Other types of Brazing : Induction

brazing, Resistance brazing, Dip brazing,
Infrared brazing etc

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Advantages of brazing
• Brazing can be used to join a large variety of dissimilar metals. Disadvantages of brazing
• Pieces of different thickness can be easily joined by brazing • A badly brazed joint looks similar to a good joint, and can have
a VERY low strength.
• Thin-walled tubes & light gauge sheet metal assemblies not • The metal used to bond the two parts may be different in
joinable by welding can be joined by brazing.
color than the parts being bonded. This may or may not be a
problem.
• Complex & multi-component assemblies can be economically
fabricated with the help of brazing. • Long-term effects of dissimilar metals in constant contact may
need to be examined for special applications.
• Inaccessible joint areas which could not be welded by gas metal • Since the filler material (typically bronze) melts at a relatively
or gas tungsten arc spot or seam welding can be formed by low temperature, brazed parts may not be put in an
brazing.
environment which exceeds the melting point of the filler
metal.

Soldering
• Group of joining processes that produce coalescence of materials by
Soldering
heating them to soldering temperature and by using filler metal
having liquidus not exceeding 450 C and below solidus of base Steps in Sweat Soldering
metals
• As in brazing, no melting of the base metals occurs, but the filler
1) Copper pipe is cleaned
metal wets and combines with the base metal to form a
metallurgical bond. 2) Flux is applied
3) Heat is applied
• Filler metal, called Solder, is added to the joint, which distributes 4) Solder is added
itself between the closely fitting parts. 5) Solder is drawn into fitting via
heat (capillary Action)
6) Pipe is wiped cleaned
• Distributed between surfaces of joint by capillary action
7) Brazing steps are the same
– Flow of liquid when drawn into small space between closely except for Brazing filler metal s
fitted (faying) surfaces added instead of solder.
SOLDER: Alloys of Tin and Lead. Tin is chemically active at soldering
temperatures and promotes the wetting action required for
successful joining

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Soldering Fluxes: Functions

• Be molten at soldering temperatures
• Remove oxide films and tarnish from base part
surfaces
• Prevent oxidation during heating
• Promote wetting of surfaces
• Be readily displaced by molten solder during process
• Leave residue that is non-corrosive and
nonconductive

Soldering Methods Advantages of soldering

• Iron soldering - The oldest and simplest soldering method and is • Low power is required;
still widely used today. Soldering irons have copper tips which easily • Low process temperature;
stores and transfers heat to the joint. • No thermal distortions and residual stresses in the joint parts;
• Microstructure is not affected by heat;
• Easily automated process;
• Wave soldering -A specific method used in the fabrication of
• Dissimilar materials may be joined;
electronic components and printed circuit boards (PCB). In this
• High variety of materials may be joined;
method, continually circulating fountains or waves of solder are
• Thin wall parts may be joined;
lifted into contact with the joints.
• Moderate skill of the operator is required.

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Comparison between Soldering, Brazing & Welding

Disadvantages of soldering
• Careful removal of the flux residuals is required in order to prevent
corrosion;
• Large sections cannot be joined;
• Fluxes may contain toxic components;
• Soldering joints can not be used in high temperature applications;
• Low strength of joints.

Plasma arc welding

- It is a variety of gas tungsten arc welding in which a constricted plasma arc

is used for welding.
- In PAW, a tungsten electrode is kept in a nozzle that focuses a high velocity
stream of inert gas into the region of the arc to form a high velocity, intensely
hot plasma arc stream.
- Temperatures in plasma arc welding reach 17,000°C. This is mainly due to
the constriction of the arc. The input power is highly concentrated to
produce a plasma jet of small diameter and very high power density.
- The process can be used to weld almost any material, including tungsten.

PAW

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Resistance welding - The heat energy supplied by RW depends on current flow, resistance of
- Resistance welding (RW) is a fusion welding processes that uses a combined effect the circuit, and length of time the current is applied. This is expressed as,
of heat and pressure to accomplish joining. This heat is generated by electrical H = I2RT
resistance to current flow at the location to be welded.
Current : 5000 to 20,000 A
- Weld nugget is generated by this process.
Voltage : < 10V
- RW uses no shielding gases, flux, or filler metal.
Duration of current : 0.1 to 0.4 s (in spot-welding operation)
- electrodes that conduct electrical power to the process are non-consumable.
- Resistance in the welding circuit is the sum of (1) resistance of the electrodes, (2)
resistances of the sheet parts, (3) contact resistances between electrodes and
sheets, and (4) contact resistance of the faying surfaces.

- Resistance at the faying surfaces depends on surface finish, cleanliness, contact

area, force. No paint, oil, dirt, and other contaminants should be present to
separate the contacting surfaces.

- Advantages: no filler rod required, high production rates, automation and

mechanization are possible.
- disadvantages: restricted to lap joint, costly equipment
Resistance welding

Resistance spot welding

Importance: a typical car body has got app. 15, 000 spot welds. Advantages
In this process, the fusion of electrodes is done by electrodes having opposing • Efficient energy use.
charges at one location. The sheet thickness has to be less than 3 mm for a good • Limited workpiece deformation. Also, workpiece is not
spot weld.
melted to a larger extent. Heat is concentrated only at the
The shape of electrode tip is important like round, hexagonal, square etc. The spot to be welded.
nugget shape will be app. 5-10 mm in this case.
• High production rates.
Electrodes in RSW: (i) Copper based, (ii) Refractory metal (Cu, Tungsten
• Suitable for automation.
combinations)
• Filler metals are not required. Hence, no associated fumes
or gas. This results in clean weld
Steps in spot welding

For stress relief

in weld region

Spot welding cycle

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Disadvantages Seam Welding

• Weld strength is significantly lower when compared to other processes. • Seam welding is a resistance welding process in which the overlapping
This makes the process suitable for only certain applications. workpieces held under pressure are joined together by a series of spot welds
made progressively along the joint utilizing the heat generated by the electrical
• Silver and copper are difficult to weld because of their high thermal resistance of the workpieces.
conductivity.
• Seam welding is similar to spot welding process, but, instead of pointed
Applications electrodes, mechanically driven wheel shaped electrodes are used to produce a
• Extensively used for welding steels and especially in the automotive continuous weld.
industry for cars that requires several hundred spot welds made by • Figure shows a seam welding process.
industrial robots.

conventional resistance seam roll spot welding continuous resistance seam

4/19/2015 109
welding (overlapping spots)
4/19/2015 110

Description and Operation Advantages

• The two workpieces to be joined are cleaned to remove dirt, grease and other • A continuous overlapping weld produced by the process makes it suitable
for joining liquid or gas tight containers and vessels.
oxides either chemically or mechanically to obtain a sound weld.
• Efficient energy use.
• The workpieces are overlapped and placed firmly between two wheel shaped • Filler metals are not required. Hence, no associated fumes or gases. This
copper alloy electrodes, which in turn are connected to a secondary circuit of a results in clean welds.
step-down transformer. Disadvantages
• The electrode wheels are driven mechanically in opposite directions with the • Requires complex control system to regulate the travel speed of
workpieces passing between them, while at the same time the pressure on the electrodes as well as the sequence of current to provide satisfactory
overlapping welds. The welding speed, spots per inch and the timing
joint is maintained. schedule are all dependant on each other.
• Welding current is passed in series of pulses at proper intervals through the • Difficult to weld metals having thickness greater than 3 mm.
bearing of the roller electrode wheels Applications
• As the current passes through the electrodes, to the workpiece, heat is generated • Used to fabricate liquid or gas tight sheet metal vessels such as gasoline
in the air gap at the point of contact (spot) of the two workpieces. tanks, heat exchangers.
• This heat melts the workpieces locally at the contact point to form a spot weld.
• Pressure is applied by air, spring or hydraulically.
• Under the pressure of continuously rotating electrodes and the current flowing
through them, a series of overlapping spot welds are made progressively along the
joint as shown in the figure.
• The weld area is flooded with water to keep the electrode wheels cool during
4/19/2015 111 4/19/2015 112
welding.

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Resistance Butt Welding Description and Operation

• Resistance butt welding or upset welding is a resistance welding process in • The machine used for butt welding consists of two clamps mounted on a
horizontal slide.
which the two parts to be joined are heated to elevated temperatures and
• The clamps are made from a conducting material, usually copper alloy which serve
forged (by applying the desired pressure) together at that temperature to carry high currents from a step-down transformer.
• Figure shows the equipment for resistance butt welding process. • The two workpieces to be joined are cleaned to remove dirt, grease and other
oxides either chemically or mechanically to obtain a sound weld.
• The workpieces are clamped rigidly on the welding machine.
• By applying external force, the work piece in the movable clamp is brought in tight
contact with the surface of the workpiece in the fixed clamp.
• High amperage current is then passed through the joint which heats the
neighboring surfaces.
• When the workpieces reaches a temperature of about 1600-1700°F, pressure is
increased to give a forging squeeze.
• Upsetting takes place while the current is flowing, and continues until the current
is switched OFF.
• After the metal has cooled, the pressure is released and the weld is completed.
• The weld joint obtained will be bulged and round due to the squeezing action of
the softened metal.
• This unwanted material can be removed later by machining process.

* Upset - To decrease the length and increase the cross-section

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Advantages Projection Welding

• Joint obtained is clean, as filler metal is not used in this process. • Projection welding is a resistance welding process in which the workpieces are
joined by the heat generated due to the resistance of the workpieces to the flow
• Produces defect free joint. Oxides, scales and other impurities are thrown
of electric current through them.
out of the weld joint due to the high pressure applied at elevated
• The resulting welds are localized at predetermined points by projections,
temperatures.
embossments, or intersections.
Disadvantages • Figure shows the resistance projection welding process.
• The process is suitable for parts with similar cross-sectional area.
• Joint preparation is a must for proper heating of workpieces to take place.
Applications
• Used for producing joints in long tubes and pipes

4/19/2015 115 4/19/2015 116

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Description and Operation Advantages

• The process uses two flat, large cylindrically shaped water cooled copper • More than one spot weld can be made in a single operation.
electrodes in which one electrode is fixed, while the other to which the pressure • Welding current and pressure required is less.
is applied is movable. • Suitable for automation.
• Filler metals are not used. Hence, clean weld joints are obtained.
• The electrodes are connected to a step-down transformer that provides the
Disadvantages
required electric current for heating.
• Projections cannot be made in thin workpieces.
• One of the workpieces contains small projections or embossment (similar to a • Thin workpieces cannot withstand the electrode pressure.
pimple on a human face) made at a particular location where the joint is to be • Equipment is costlier.
made. Applications
• The workpieces are cleaned to remove dust, scale and other oxides either • A very common use of projection welding is the use of special nuts that have
chemically or mechanically to obtain a sound weld. projections on the portion of the part to be welded to the assembly.
• The workpieces are then placed between the two electrodes and held firmly • Also, used for welding parts of refrigerator, condensers, refrigerator racks, grills
etc.
under external pressure.
• When the welding current is made to pass through the electrodes, to the
workpieces, maximum heat is generated at the point of contact of the two
workpieces, i.e., at the projections.
• This heat softens and melts the projections causing it to collapse under the
external pressure of the electrode thereby forming a spot weld. Refer figure.
• The current is switched OFF and the pressure on the workpiece is removed.
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FRICTION WELDING Description and Operation

• Friction Welding is a solid state welding process wherein coalescence is produced • The machine for friction welding is similar to a lathe which consists of a chuck held
by the heat obtained from mechanically induced sliding motion between rubbing in the spindle of the headstock.
surfaces. • The chuck holds one of the workpieces and rotates it at high speeds (around 3000
• The work parts are held together under pressure. rpm).
• Figure shows the arrangement for friction welding process. • The other workpiece is held stationary and in a movable clamp so that it can be
brought in contact with the rotating workpiece.
• The workpieces to be joined are prepared to have a smooth square cut surfaces.
• In operation, the stationary work piece is slowly brought in contact with the
rotating workpiece under an axial force. Refer figure.
• As the workpieces come in contact with each other, friction is generated at the
contact surface resulting in heating of the workpieces.
• The axial pressure to the stationary workpiece is increased until the friction
between the surfaces raises the heat to the welding temperature.
• At this moment, the rotation of the workpiece is stopped, but the pressure is
maintained or, in some cases increased to complete the weld.
• The weld joint obtained will be bulged due to the squeezing action of the softened
metal. The excess metal can be removed by machining.

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Advantages
• Process is simple Roll welding or bonding
• Low power requirements.
• Edge preparation is not required. The impurities are thrown away by the friction
generated between the two workpieces.
• No filler metal. Hence, the joint obtained is clean.
• Dissimilar metals can be easily welded.
Disadvantages
• The process is restricted to tubular parts and butt welds. Roll welding or bonding: Two or more sheets are kept one above the other and rolled
to generate bonding between them. If done without application of external heat, then
it is called cold roll bonding. With the application of external heat, it is called hot roll
bonding.

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Explosive welding

In explosive welding, because of progressive explosion, high pressure zone propels

the flyer plate to collide with the backer metal progressively at high velocity, so that
WELD TESTING
an angular shape is generated as the explosion advances.

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DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
• These can be divided
into two parts,
• Tests capable of being
performed in the
DESTRUCTIVE workshop.
• Laboratory tests.
AND – microscopic-
NON-DESTRUCTIVE macroscopic
chemical and
corrosive.

REASONS WORKSHOP TESTS

• Defects occur during welding which affect the quality and
hardness of the plate TENSILE BENDING
• Other defects occur through lack of knowledge of and
skill of the welder IMPACT HARDNES
• For the training of welders
FATIGUE CRACKING

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TENSILE TENSILE

Material is sectioned and

edges rounded of to
prevent cracking.
Punch marks are made to
see elongation.

BEND TESTING BEND TEST

O
• Bend through 180
• Shows Physical condition of the • the specimen should be a minimum of 30mm wide
weld • The fulcrums diameter is 3x thickness of the plate
• The bottom rollers have a distance of the diameter of the
Determine welds efficiency former + 2.2 times the thickness of the plate
• Tensile strength • Upper and lower surfaces ground or filed flat and edges
• Ductility rounded off.
• Fusion and penetration • the tests should be one against the root -another against
the face ,and in some cases a side bend.

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Root bend FACE BEND

TEST MACHINE
IMPACT
• CHARPY AND IZOD
• Gives the toughness and shock loading of the
material and weld at varying temperatures
with a notch such as under cut
• The measurement is the energy required to to
break a specimen with a given notch
o
• 2mm depth at a 45 bevel or a “U” notch.

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CHARPY CHARPY

IZOD HARDNESS TESTS.

• This gives the metals ability to show resistance
to indentation which show it’s resistance to
wear and abrasion.
• The tests are
– Brinell
– Rockwell
– Vickers diamond pyramid
– Scleroscope

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VICKERS HARDNES

FATIGUE

• the testing of Material that is subject to

fluctuating loads
• HAIGH Electro magnetic tester.
• W’O’HLER Uses rotating chuck with weight

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CRACKING CRACKING

• REEVES Test study the hardening and cracking of • Three Sides Are
welds. Welded With Known
• The compatibility of electrodes for the metal Compatible
being joined. Electrodes.
• The front edge is
welded with the test
electrode.
• if incompatible it will
crack.

MICROSCOPIC MACROSCOPIC

• Used to determine • Examined using a

the actual structure of magnifying glass .
the weld and parent • magnification from 2
metal to 20 time.
• Up to 50,000 times • it will show up slag
magnification with an entrapment or cracks .
electron beam • polishing not as high
microscope as micro.
• Polishing must be of a
very high standard

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ETCHING REAGENTS
• These are acids used to show up different
structures in metals
• For steels the most common is “1-2 % nitric NON-DESTRUCTIVE
acid in distilled water or alcohol.
• Aluminum uses a solution of 10-20%caustic TESTING
soda in water

VISUAL DYE PENETRANTS

• While welding • After welding • These are an aid to visual inspection
– The rate the electrode – Under cut
melts – Lack of root fusion
– The way the weld metal
flows
– Any pin holes from gas • Will only find surface defects
or slag
– Sound of the arc – Amount of spatter
– The light given of – Dimensions of weld
• Use correct type

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DYE PENETRANTS
DYE PENETRANTS

• Types
– Red
– Flouresant

• CAUTION
– Oil based
– Water washable

DETECTION MAGNETIC PARTICLE

• Mainly for surface
defects
• Some sub surface
defects can be found
• Only ferrous metal

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ACOUSTICS
APPLICATION OF A LOAD
• Used to test pressure vessels
Striking with a rounded
object • Pipe lines
• The item for testing is filled with water or oil it
Ringing tone if no defect is then pressurised using a pump
• A safety valve is set 1.5 to 2 times below the
Tone changes when working pressure.
object is cracked

PRESSURE TEST

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X- RAY
RADIOGRAPHIC

X-RAY
GAMMA RAY
Electro magnetic
radiation of short
duration
Both of these methods
are a danger to health

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X-RAY VIEWER ULTRASONIC TESTING

Pictures taken are This uses high pitched

viewed as negatives sound
will only give flat image The sound will not pass
not in three through an air gap so
dimensional bounces back and is
darkened area must be picked up on a receiver
used for viewing The reader is a
oscilloscope

ULTRA SONIC

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