Explain the array

respresentation of linked list in

memory ?
In memory, linked lists are typically implemented using dynamic memory
allocation and pointers, where each node contains data and a reference (pointer)
to the next node. However, if you want to represent a linked list using an array, the
approach is a bit different and somewhat unconventional.

Array Representation of a Linked List:

In this method, instead of using pointers to link the nodes, you use an index within
an array to simulate the links between nodes. The basic idea is to store the linked
list elements in an array, and the next node is determined by an index that acts as
a pointer.

Components:
1. Array of Data: An array where each element stores the data (just like a regular
linked list node).

2. Array of Links (Next): Another array that stores the index of the "next"
element in the array, simulating the pointer in a linked list.

3. Head Index: A variable that keeps track of the index of the first element of the
list (the "head" node).

4. Null Representation: Instead of using null (like in a pointer-based linked list),

you use a special index (e.g., 1 ) to represent the end of the list.

Example:
Let’s say we have a linked list: 10 -> 20 -> 30 -> null .
Here’s how it would be represented using arrays:

1. Data Array:

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 1

 Data: [10, 20, 30, ...]
Index: 0 1 2

2.Next Array:
Next: [1, 2, -1, ...]
Index: 0 1 2

The Next[0] = 1 means the next element after index 0 (data = 10) is at index 1
(data = 20).

The Next[1] = 2 means the next element after index 1 (data = 20) is at index 2
(data = 30).

The Next[2] = -1 means this is the last node (end of the linked list).

3. Head:
The head of the linked list is stored as an index in the array. In this case, the
head = 0, which refers to the element 10 .

Operations:
1. Traversal:

Start from the head index (0) and follow the indices in the Next array.

Example: Start at index 0 (data = 10), move to Next[0] = 1 (data = 20), then
move to Next[1] = 2 (data = 30), and finally, Next[2] = -1 (end of the list).

2. Insertion:

Insert a new element by finding an empty slot in the Data array, update the
Next array accordingly, and adjust the links to maintain the structure.

3. Deletion:

Deleting an element requires adjusting the Next array to bypass the

deleted element, and updating any references to the next nodes.

Advantages:
This approach can be useful in memory-constrained environments where
memory allocation is static, and you know the maximum number of nodes

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 2

 beforehand.

It avoids pointer manipulation, which can simplify implementation in low-

level languages.

Disadvantages:
Unlike a traditional linked list, this implementation requires a fixed-size
array, limiting flexibility.

It can be inefficient in terms of memory usage because you need to

maintain two arrays ( Data and Next ), and you cannot easily resize the
array without reallocating memory.

Inserting or deleting elements requires more work compared to a pointer-

based linked list, as the array indices must be updated.

In real-world applications, pointer-based linked lists are much more common

due to their dynamic nature and efficient memory usage.

Que 2)write an algorithm to insert an ITEM at specifiied

location in single linked list .

Steps:
1. Create a node structure: Each node has two parts—data and a pointer to
the next node.

2. Check for empty list: If the list is empty and the location is 1, simply insert
the node.

3. Traverse to the desired position: Navigate the list until you reach the
position just before the desired location.

4. Insert the node: Update the pointers to insert the new node at the desired
location.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 3

 struct Node {
int data;
Node* next;
};
void insertAtPosition(Node*& head, int data, int position)
{
Node* newNode = new Node();
newNode->data = data;
if (position == 1) {
newNode->next = head;
head = newNode;
return;
}
Node * temp = head;
for (int i = 1; i < position - 1 && temp != nullptr; i++)
{
temp = temp->next;
}
if (temp == nullptr) {
cout << "Position out of range" << endl;
return;
}
newNode->next = temp->next;
temp->next = newNode;
}
void printList(Node* head) {
while (head != nullptr) {
cout << head->data << " -> ";
head = head->next;
}
cout << "NULL" << endl;
}
int main() {
Node* head = nullptr;
insertAtPosition(head, 10, 1); // Insert 10 at position 1
insertAtPosition(head, 20, 2); // Insert 20 at position 2

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 4

 insertAtPosition(head, 15, 2); // Insert 15 at position 2

printList(head); // Print: 10 -> 15 -> 20 -> NULL

return 0;
}

Explanation:
insertAtPosition(10, 1): Inserts 10 at position 1 (head).

insertAtPosition(20, 2): Inserts 20 at position 2.

insertAtPosition(15, 2): Inserts 15 at position 2, pushing the other nodes

further down.

Output:-
10 -> 15 -> 20 -> NULL

Que 3) what is circular linked list?Explain with exapmle?

A circular linked list is a variation of the traditional linked list where the last
node points back to the first node, forming a loop or circle.

This structure can be useful in situations where you need continuous traversal
of the list without having to return to the head explicitly.

Key Characteristics:
1. Circular nature: In a circular linked list, the last node’s next pointer is not
nullptr (as in a singly linked list), but instead points back to the first node.

2. Traversal: Since there is no nullptr at the end, traversal must stop when you
revisit the head node.

Circular linked lists can be:

Singly circular: Each node has a pointer to the next node, with the last node
pointing back to the head.

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 5

 Doubly circular: Each node has pointers to both the next and the previous
nodes, and the last node points back to the head, while the head points to the
last node.

Example:-
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

struct Node {
int data;
Node* next;
};
void insert(Node*& head, int data) {
Node* newNode = new Node();
newNode->data = data;

if (head == nullptr) {
head = newNode;
newNode->next = head; // Point to itself to form a circl
e
} else {
Node* temp = head;
while (temp->next != head) {
temp = temp->next;
}
temp->next = newNode;
newNode->next = head; // Last node points back to the he
ad
}

// Function to print a circular linked list

void printList(Node* head) {
if (head == nullptr) return;

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 6

 Node* temp = head;
do {
cout << temp->data << " -> ";
temp = temp->next;
} while (temp != head); // Continue until we reach the head
again
cout << "(back to head)" << endl;

int main() {
Node* head = nullptr;

insert(head, 10); // List: 10 -> (back to head)

insert(head, 20); // List: 10 -> 20 -> (back to head)
insert(head, 30); // List: 10 -> 20 -> 30 -> (back to head)

printList(head);

return 0;

Explanation:
1. Node Structure: Each node has two parts:

data : Stores the value.

next : Points to the next node.

2. insert Function:

If the list is empty, the new node points to itself, forming a circular
structure.

If the list already has elements, we traverse to the last node, insert the new
node, and make the new node’s next point to the head.

3. printList Function:

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 7

 The list is printed starting from the head.

We use a do-while loop to ensure that even the head is printed, and the
loop terminates when we reach the head again.

Output:-

10 -> 20 -> 30 -> (back to head)

Circular Linked List Use Cases:

Round-robin scheduling: Circular linked lists are used in scheduling tasks
that need to be repeated after completion.

Data buffering: Used in applications like buffering, where continuous

cycling over a set of data is required.

Games: Used for traversing players in multiplayer games in a circular

fashion.

Que 4)Write an algorithm to add an element at the beginning of a

double linked list.
In a doubly linked list, each node has two pointers:

1. A pointer to the next node.

2. A pointer to the previous node.

To add an element at the beginning of a doubly linked list, follow this algorithm:

Algorithm to Add an Element at the Beginning of a Doubly Linked

List:
1. Create a new node:

Allocate memory for a new node and set its data field to the new element.

2. Update new node's pointers:

Set the next pointer of the new node to point to the current head of the
list.

Set the prev pointer of the new node to nullptr because it will be the new
head.

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 8

 3. Update the current head node's previous pointer (if the list is not empty):

Set the prev pointer of the current head to the new node.

4. Update the head:

Make the new node the new head of the list.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
// Node structure for doubly linked list
struct Node {
int data;
Node* next;
Node* prev;
};
// Function to add a node at the beginning of the doubly linked list
void addAtBeginning(Node*& head, int data) {
// Create a new node
Node* newNode = new Node();
newNode->data = data;
newNode->next = head; // New node points to the current head
newNode->prev = nullptr; // New node will be the head, so no previous node

// If the list is not empty, update the current head's pre

vious pointer
if (head != nullptr) {
head->prev = newNode;
}

// Update the head to be the new node

head = newNode;

}
// Function to print the list from head to tail
void printList(Node* head) {
Node* temp = head;

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 9

 while (temp != nullptr) {
cout << temp->data << " -> ";
temp = temp->next;
}
cout << "NULL" << endl;
}

int main() {
Node* head = nullptr;

// Adding elements to the list

addAtBeginning(head, 10); // List: 10
addAtBeginning(head, 20); // List: 20 -> 10
addAtBeginning(head, 30); // List: 30 -> 20 -> 10

// Print the list

printList(head);

return 0;

Explanation of Code:
1. Node Structure:

data : Stores the value.

next : Points to the next node.

prev : Points to the previous node.

2. addAtBeginning Function:

A new node is created with the given data.

The next pointer of the new node is set to the current head, and prev is
set to nullptr .

If the list is not empty, the current head's prev pointer is updated to point
to the new node.

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 10

 Finally, the head is updated to the new node.

3. printList Function:

Traverses the list from the head to the end, printing each node's data.

Output Example:
30 -> 20 -> 10 -> NULL

Que5) What is linked list ?Explain the dynamic respresentation of

linked list in memory

What is a Linked List?

A linked list is a linear data structure in which elements, known as nodes, are
linked together using pointers. Each node contains:

1. Data: The value stored in the node.

2. Pointer: A reference to the next node in the sequence.

Unlike arrays, where elements are stored in contiguous memory locations, the
nodes in a linked list can be scattered across different memory locations. This
allows linked lists to be dynamic, meaning their size can grow or shrink as needed,
making them more flexible for certain operations (like inserting or deleting
elements).

Types of Linked Lists:

1. Singly Linked List: Each node points to the next node and the last node points
to nullptr .

2. Doubly Linked List: Each node has two pointers, one pointing to the next node
and one pointing to the previous node.

3. Circular Linked List: The last node points back to the first node, forming a
loop.

Dynamic Representation of Linked List in Memory

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 11

 In a linked list, nodes are dynamically allocated in memory (usually from the heap),
and each node points to the next node in the sequence. The linked list's dynamic
nature allows its size to adjust during runtime, unlike arrays that have a fixed size.

Memory Representation of a Singly Linked List:

1. Dynamic Memory Allocation:

In languages like C++ and C, memory for each node is dynamically

allocated using functions like malloc or new .

Each node occupies a non-contiguous memory block, and the nodes are
linked through pointers.

2. Node Structure in Memory:

Each node has two parts:Example of a singly linked list in memory:

Data field: Holds the actual value.

Next pointer: Holds the memory address of the next node (or nullptr for
the last node).

rust
Copy code
[Node 1] ---> [Node 2] ---> [Node 3] ---> [nullptr]
| Data | | Data | | Data |
| Next | ----> | Next | ----> | Next |

Dynamic Memory Representation:

Let's assume we have a linked list containing three elements,

dynamically allocated in memory:
1. Node 1:

Data: 10

Next: Points to Node 2

Memory Address: 0x1000 (hypothetical address)

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 12

 2. Node 2:

Data: 20

Next: Points to Node 3

Memory Address: 0x2000

3. Node 3:

Data: 30

Next: Points to nullptr (end of the list)

Memory Address: 0x3000

Visualization:
Address Data Next

0x1000 10 0x2000

0x2000 20 0x3000

0x3000 30 nullptr

Memory Pointers:
Head pointer: The linked list typically has a pointer called head which stores
the address of the first node (Node 1, i.e., 0x1000 in this case).

Each node’s next pointer stores the memory address of the next node.

When the list is traversed:

Start at head .

Follow the next pointer of each node to the next node until nullptr is reached.

Dynamic Nature:
1. Insertion:

New nodes can be inserted anywhere in the list by adjusting the pointers
without shifting data like in arrays.

For example, inserting a new node between Node 2 and Node 3 only
requires updating the next pointers of Node 2 and the new node.

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 13

 2. Deletion:

Removing a node only involves updating the pointer of the preceding node
to skip the removed node.

For example, removing Node 2 involves updating the next pointer of Node
1 to point to Node 3.

C++ Example of Dynamic Linked List:

cpp
Copy code
#include <iostream>using namespace std;

// Node structure
struct Node {
int data;
Node* next;
};

// Function to add a node at the end

void append(Node*& head, int data) {
Node* newNode = new Node();
newNode->data = data;
newNode->next = nullptr;

if (head == nullptr) {
head = newNode; // If the list is empty, the new nod
e is the head
} else {
Node* temp = head;
while (temp->next != nullptr) {
temp = temp->next;
}
temp->next = newNode;
}
}

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 14

 // Function to print the list
void printList(Node* head) {
while (head != nullptr) {
cout << head->data << " -> ";
head = head->next;
}
cout << "NULL" << endl;
}

int main() {
Node* head = nullptr;

// Dynamically adding nodes

append(head, 10); // Add 10
append(head, 20); // Add 20
append(head, 30); // Add 30

// Print the list

printList(head); // Output: 10 -> 20 -> 30 -> NULL

return 0;
}

Memory Representation in the Example:

append Function dynamically allocates memory for each node using new .

Each node is stored at a different memory address and linked via the next

pointers.

In this example, nodes are added dynamically as needed, illustrating the flexibility
of linked lists over arrays in terms of memory usage.

Key Points of Linked Lists:

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 15

 Dynamic Size: The size of the list can change at runtime (elements can be
added or removed).

Efficient Insertions/Deletions: Insertions and deletions are more efficient than

in arrays because there's no need to shift elements.

Non-contiguous Memory: Nodes are stored at different memory addresses,

connected by pointers.

Que 6) write an algorithm to insert a node at he front of single

linked list
Algorithm to Insert a Node at the Front of a Singly Linked List
Inserting a node at the front (or head) of a singly linked list means adding a new
node at the beginning of the list and updating the head pointer to point to this new
node.

Steps:
1. Create a new node:

Allocate memory for the new node.

Assign the data value to the new node.

2. Set the new node's next pointer:

Make the next pointer of the new node point to the current head (the first
node in the list).

3. Update the head:

Set the head pointer to point to the new node (since it is now the first node
in the list).

4. End:

The new node is now the first node in the list, and the old list follows it.

Algorithm:

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 16

 1. Create a new node:
newNode = allocate memory for a new node
newNode->data = value (the data to be inserted)

2. Set the new node's next pointer:

newNode->next = head (point the new node to the current h
ead)

3. Update the head pointer:

head = newNode (make the new node the new head of the lis
t)

4. End

C++ Code Example:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

// Node structure for singly linked list

struct Node {
int data;
Node* next;
};

// Function to insert a node at the front of the list

void insertAtFront(Node*& head, int data) {
// Create a new node
Node* newNode = new Node();
newNode->data = data;

// Set the new node's next pointer to the current head

newNode->next = head;

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 17

 // Update the head to the new node
head = newNode;
}

// Function to print the list

void printList(Node* head) {
Node* temp = head;
while (temp != nullptr) {
cout << temp->data << " -> ";
temp = temp->next;
}
cout << "NULL" << endl;
}

int main() {
Node* head = nullptr;

// Insert nodes at the front

insertAtFront(head, 30); // List: 30
insertAtFront(head, 20); // List: 20 -> 30
insertAtFront(head, 10); // List: 10 -> 20 -> 30

// Print the list

printList(head); // Output: 10 -> 20 -> 30 -> NULL

return 0;
}

Explanation of the Code:

1. Node Structure:

Each node has two parts: data and next pointer.

2. insertAtFront Function:

A new node is created and assigned the value to be inserted.

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 18

 The new node's next pointer is set to the current head, and then the head
is updated to the new node.

3. printList Function:

This function traverses the list from the head, printing each node's data
until it reaches the end ( nullptr ).

Output:

10 -> 20 -> 30 -> NULL

This algorithm efficiently inserts a node at the front of a singly linked list.

Unit-2
Que 1). Explain Quick short with suitable example
"Quick sort" is a highly efficient sorting algorithm based on the divide and
conquer approach.

It works by selecting a "pivot" element from the array, partitioning the other
elements into two sub-arrays (those less than the pivot and those greater),
and then recursively sorting the sub-arrays.

Steps of Quick Sort:

1. Pick a pivot element: Choose an element from the array (usually the first, last,
middle, or a random element).

2. Partitioning: Rearrange the array so that all elements less than the pivot are
on the left side, and all elements greater than the pivot are on the right side.

3. Recursion: Recursively apply the above steps to the sub-arrays.

Example:
Let’s say we have the array: [8, 3, 1, 7, 0, 10, 2] .

1. Choose a pivot: Let’s pick 7 as the pivot.

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 19

 2. Partitioning:

Elements less than 7: [3, 1, 0, 2]

Pivot: 7

Elements greater than 7: [8, 10]

After partitioning, we have

[3, 1, 0, 2, 7, 8, 10] .

3. Recursion:

Apply quick sort to the left sub-array [3, 1, 0, 2] :

Pick a pivot (let's say 2 ), partition into [1, 0] and [3] .

Recursively sort [1, 0] which becomes [0, 1] .

The result for this sub-array is [0, 1, 2, 3] .

The right sub-array [8, 10] is already sorted.

Final sorted array: [0, 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 10] .

Here’s a simple implementation of Quick Sort in C++:

Code Example (C++):

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
void swap(int& a, int& b) {
int temp = a;
a = b;
b = temp;
}
int partition(int arr[], int low, int high) {
int pivot = arr[high]; // Pivot element
int i = low - 1; // Index of smaller element
for (int j = low; j < high; j++) {
if (arr[j] < pivot) {
i++;

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 20

 swap(arr[i], arr[j]); // Swap arr[i] and arr[j]
}
}
swap(arr[i + 1], arr[high]);
return i + 1;
}
void quickSort(int arr[], int low, int high) {
if (low < high) {
int pi = partition(arr, low, high); // Partitioning i
ndex
quickSort(arr, low, pi - 1);
quickSort(arr, pi + 1, high);
}
}
void printArray(int arr[], int size) {
for (int i = 0; i < size; i++)
cout << arr[i] << " ";
cout << endl;
}
int main() {
int arr[] = {8, 3, 1, 7, 0, 10, 2};
int n = sizeof(arr) / sizeof(arr[0]);
cout << "Original array: ";
printArray(arr, n);
quickSort(arr, 0, n - 1);
cout << "Sorted array: ";
printArray(arr, n);
return 0;
}

Explanation:
1. swap(): A utility function to swap two elements.

2. partition(): It selects the pivot (in this case, the last element of the array) and
places it in its correct position in the sorted array. All smaller elements are

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 21

 moved to the left of the pivot, and all larger elements are moved to the right.

3. quickSort(): Recursively sorts the elements before and after the partition.

4. printArray(): Utility function to print the elements of the array.

Sample Output:

Original array: 8 3 1 7 0 10 2
Sorted array: 0 1 2 3 7 8 10

Time Complexity:
Average case: O(n log n)

Worst case: O(n²), happens when the pivot is always the smallest or largest
element.

Let me know if you need further clarification!

Que 2). What is stack ?write an algorithm to insert an element in

stack

What is a Stack?
A stack is a linear data structure that follows the Last In First Out (LIFO) principle,
meaning the last element added to the stack will be the first to be removed. You
can visualize it like a stack of plates where you can only add or remove a plate
from the top.

Main Operations in Stack:

1. Push: Add an element to the top of the stack.

2. Pop: Remove the top element from the stack.

3. Peek/Top: Look at the top element without removing it.

4. isEmpty: Check whether the stack is empty.

Algorithm to Insert an Element in a Stack (Push Operation):

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 22

 Here, we will assume the stack has a fixed size.

Steps:
1. Step 1: Check if the stack is full. If the stack is full, output "Stack Overflow"
and terminate the operation.

2. Step 2: If the stack is not full, increment the top pointer to point to the next
available space in the stack.

3. Step 3: Insert the new element at the position pointed to by top .

4. Step 4: End.

Example Algorithm in Pseudocode:

Algorithm Push(stack, element, maxSize)

// stack is the array representing the stack
// element is the value to be inserted
// maxSize is the maximum capacity of the stack

if top >= maxSize - 1 then

print "Stack Overflow"
return

top ← top + 1 // Move the top pointer

stack[top] ← element // Insert element on top

print "Element", element, "inserted successfully"

End Algorithm

Explanation:
top: Keeps track of the index of the top element in the stack.

If top >= maxSize - 1 , it means the stack is full.

Otherwise, we increment top and add the new element to that position in the
stack.

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 23

 Here’s a C++ implementation of the push operation to insert an element into a
stack:

C++ Code:

#include <iostream>
#define MAX 5 // Defining the maximum size of the stack

using namespace std;

class Stack {
int top;
int stack[MAX]; // Array to store the stack elements

public:
// Constructor to initialize top
Stack() {
top = -1; // Stack is empty initially
}

// Function to push (insert) an element into the stack

void push(int element) {
if (top >= MAX - 1) {
cout << "Stack Overflow!" << endl; // Stack is fu
ll
} else {
top++; // Increment top
stack[top] = element; // Insert the element
cout << "Element " << element << " inserted into
the stack." << endl;
}
}

// Function to display the elements of the stack

void display() {
if (top == -1) {

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 24

 cout << "Stack is empty!" << endl;
} else {
cout << "Stack elements: ";
for (int i = top; i >= 0; i--) {
cout << stack[i] << " ";
}
cout << endl;
}
}
};

int main() {
Stack s;
s.push(10);
s.push(20);
s.push(30);
s.push(40);
s.push(50);

// Trying to insert element into a full stack

s.push(60); // This should trigger "Stack Overflow"

s.display(); // Display stack elements

return 0;
}

Explanation:
The Stack class contains:

An array stack[] to store the stack elements.

An integer top to keep track of the index of the top element (initialized to
1 to signify an empty stack).

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 25

 The push() method to insert an element. It checks if the stack is full before
inserting and displays "Stack Overflow" if full.

The display() method to print the current elements in the stack.

The main() function demonstrates inserting elements into the stack and
checking for stack overflow when attempting to push more than the allowed
maximum.

Output:

Element 10 inserted into the stack.

Element 20 inserted into the stack.
Element 30 inserted into the stack.
Element 40 inserted into the stack.
Element 50 inserted into the stack.
Stack Overflow!
Stack elements: 50 40 30 20 10

Let me know if you have any further questions or need additional functionalities!

Que 3). Write an algorithm for translating the infix expression into
postfix notation

Algorithm to Convert an Infix Expression to Postfix Notation

To convert an infix expression (where operators are written between operands,
e.g., A + B ) to a postfix expression (where operators follow their operands, e.g., A

B + ), we use a stack to store operators while scanning the infix expression from

left to right. The key idea is to output operands as they arrive and push operators
onto the stack, respecting operator precedence and parentheses.

Steps:
1. Initialize an empty stack for storing operators and an empty string for storing
the output postfix expression.

2. Scan the infix expression from left to right.

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 26

 3. For each character in the expression:

If the character is an operand (e.g., a letter or number), add it directly to

the postfix expression.

If the character is an open parenthesis ( , push it onto the stack.

If the character is a closing parenthesis ) , pop from the stack and add
operators to the postfix expression until an open parenthesis ( is
encountered. Discard the open parenthesis.

If the character is an operator ( + , , , / , etc.):

1. Pop operators from the stack and add them to the postfix expression
while the precedence of the operator on top of the stack is greater
than or equal to the current operator.

2. Push the current operator onto the stack.

4. After scanning the entire infix expression, pop all the operators remaining in
the stack and add them to the postfix expression.

5. End.

Precedence and Associativity Rules:

Operators like , / , % have higher precedence than + and .

Operators with the same precedence are evaluated based on associativity

(usually left-to-right for most operators).

Algorithm InfixToPostfix(expression):
1. Initialize an empty stack (let's call it operatorStack)
2. Initialize an empty string (let's call it postfix)

3. For each character ch in the infix expression:

a. If ch is an operand:
Add ch to postfix
b. Else if ch is an open parenthesis '(':
Push '(' onto operatorStack
c. Else if ch is a closing parenthesis ')':
While top of operatorStack is not '(':

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 27

 Pop from operatorStack and append to postfix
Pop the '(' from operatorStack (but do not add to pos
tfix)
d. Else if ch is an operator (e.g., +, -, *, /):
While operatorStack is not empty and precedence of to
p of operatorStack is >= precedence of ch:
Pop from operatorStack and append to postfix
Push ch onto operatorStack

4. After the loop, pop all remaining operators from operatorS

tack and append to postfix

5. Return postfix

Que 4).What is stack explain push and pop operations in stack

What is a Stack?
A stack is a linear data structure that follows the Last In First Out (LIFO) principle,
meaning the last element added to the stack will be the first to be removed. Think
of it like a stack of books where you can only place or remove books from the top.

Key Features of a Stack:

1. LIFO (Last In First Out): The most recent element inserted is the first one to be
removed.

2. Fixed Size: In some implementations, stacks can have a fixed size, though
dynamic stacks are also possible.

Stack Operations:
1. Push Operation:

Definition: The push operation adds an element to the top of the stack.

Steps:

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 28

 1. Check if the stack is full (overflow condition). If the stack is full, return
an error message ("Stack Overflow").

2. If the stack is not full, increment the top pointer and insert the new
element at the position pointed by the top.

Example: If a stack has elements [10, 20] and we push 30 , the stack
becomes [10, 20, 30] , with 30 being the top element.

2. Pop Operation:

Definition: The pop operation removes the element from the top of the
stack.

Steps:

1. Check if the stack is empty (underflow condition). If the stack is

empty, return an error message ("Stack Underflow").

2. If the stack is not empty, remove the element at the position pointed by
the top and decrement the top pointer.

Example: If a stack has elements [10, 20, 30] and we pop an element, the
top element 30 is removed, and the stack becomes [10, 20] .

Stack Representation
Let’s take a simple example:

Initially: Stack is empty

Push Operations:

Push 10 → Stack: [10]

Push 20 → Stack: [10, 20]

Push 30 → Stack: [10, 20, 30]

Pop Operations:

Pop → Stack: [10, 20] (element 30 is removed)

Pop → Stack: [10] (element 20 is removed)

Pop → Stack: [] (element 10 is removed)

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 29

 Que 5).Write a recursive algorithm to find the factorial of given
number

Recursive Algorithm to Find the Factorial of a Given Number

The factorial of a number n, denoted as n!, is the product of all positive integers
less than or equal to n. Mathematically, it's defined as:
n!=n×(n−1)×(n−2)× ⋯×1
For example:

5!=5×4×3×2×1=120

By definition, 0!=1

A recursive algorithm breaks the problem into smaller subproblems, solving them
one by one. In the case of factorial:

Base case: If n=0, return 1 (since 0!=1).

Recursive case: If n>0, return n×factorial(n−1).

Algorithm Factorial(n):
If n == 0:
Return 1 // Base case: 0! = 1
Else:
Return n * Factorial(n - 1) // Recursive case: n * (n-1)!
End Algorithm

Explanation:
If n=0, the function returns 1 as the factorial of 0 is defined as 1.
n=0n = 0

Otherwise, it returns n×factorial(n−1), calling the same function for n−1.

n×factorial(n−1)n \times \text{factorial}(n-1)
n−1n-1

Example:

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 30

 For n=5n = 5n=5:
Factorial(5)=5×Factorial(4)
Factorial(4)=4×Factorial(3)
Factorial(3)=3×Factorial(2)
Factorial(2)=2×Factorial(1)
Factorial(1)=1×Factorial(0)=1
Finally, multiplying all the results:

5!=5×4×3×2×1=120

Que 6).Explain tower of hanoi problem for 3 disks

Tower of Hanoi Problem

The Tower of Hanoi is a classic problem that involves moving disks from one rod
to another while following a set of rules. It is a mathematical puzzle that can be
solved using recursion.

Problem Description:
There are three rods (A, B, and C) and n disks of different sizes stacked on rod A,
with the largest disk at the bottom and the smallest at the top. The goal is to move
all the disks from rod A (source) to rod C (destination) using rod B (auxiliary) as an
intermediate rod.

Rules:
1. Only one disk can be moved at a time.

2. A disk can only be placed on top of another disk if the disk below is larger.

3. All disks must be moved to the destination rod while following the above two
rules.

Tower of Hanoi with 3 Disks:

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 31

 We are given 3 disks (disk 1, 2, 3) where disk 1 is the smallest and disk 3 is the
largest. The objective is to move all disks from rod A to rod C, using rod B as an
auxiliary.

Steps to Solve:
Move disk 1 from A to C (so you free up the smallest disk first).

Move disk 2 from A to B (so you can later move disk 3).

Move disk 1 from C to B (stack disk 1 on top of disk 2).

Move disk 3 from A to C (the largest disk goes to the destination rod).

Move disk 1 from B to A (temporarily place disk 1 on rod A to free up rod B).

Move disk 2 from B to C (move disk 2 to the destination rod).

Move disk 1 from A to C (finally, move the smallest disk on top of disk 2 on rod
C).

Recursive Solution:
The recursive nature of the problem involves breaking it down into smaller
subproblems. For \( n \) disks:

1. Move the top \( n - 1 \) disks from rod A to rod B using rod C as auxiliary.

2. Move the \( n \)-th (largest) disk from rod A to rod C.

3. Move the \( n - 1 \) disks from rod B to rod C using rod A as auxiliary.

Algorithm for 3 Disks:

For 3 disks, the recursive steps look like this:

1. Move 2 disks from A to B using C as auxiliary.

2. Move 1 disk from A to C.

3. Move 2 disks from B to C using A as auxiliary.

Pseudocode:

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 32

 Algorithm TowerOfHanoi(n, source, destination, auxiliary):
If n == 1: // Base case: only 1 disk
Move disk from source to destination
Else:
TowerOfHanoi(n-1, source, auxiliary, destination) //
Step 1: move n-1 disks from source to auxiliary
Move disk from source to destination // Step 2: move
nth disk from source to destination
TowerOfHanoi(n-1, auxiliary, destination, source) //
Step 3: move n-1 disks from auxiliary to destination
End Algorithm

Tower of Hanoi Steps for 3 Disks:

1. Move disk 1 from A to C.

2. Move disk 2 from A to B.

3. Move disk 1 from C to B.

4. Move disk 3 from A to C.

5. Move disk 1 from B to A.

6. Move disk 2 from B to C.

7. Move disk 1 from A to C.

Visualization for 3 Disks:

Initial configuration:

Rod A: [3, 2, 1] (largest at the bottom, smallest at the top)

Rod B: []

Rod C: []

After Step 1 (move disk 1 from A to C):

Rod A: [3, 2]

Rod B: []

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 33

 Rod C: [1]

After Step 2 (move disk 2 from A to B):

Rod A: [3]

Rod B: [2]

Rod C: [1]

After Step 3 (move disk 1 from C to B):

Rod A: [3]

Rod B: [2, 1]

Rod C: []

After Step 4 (move disk 3 from A to C):

Rod A: []

Rod B: [2, 1]

Rod C: [3]

After Step 5 (move disk 1 from B to A):

Rod A: [1]

Rod B: [2]

Rod C: [3]

After Step 6 (move disk 2 from B to C):

Rod A: [1]

Rod B: []

Rod C: [3, 2]

After Step 7 (move disk 1 from A to C):

Rod A: []

Rod B: []

Rod C: [3, 2, 1]

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 34

 C++ Code for Tower of Hanoi (3 Disks):

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

// Recursive function to solve Tower of Hanoi

void towerOfHanoi(int n, char source, char destination, char
auxiliary) {
if (n == 1) {
cout << "Move disk 1 from " << source << " to " << de
stination << endl;
return;
}
// Move n-1 disks from source to auxiliary using destinat
ion as buffer
towerOfHanoi(n - 1, source, auxiliary, destination);

// Move nth disk from source to destination

cout << "Move disk " << n << " from " << source << " to "
<< destination << endl;

// Move n-1 disks from auxiliary to destination using sou

rce as buffer
towerOfHanoi(n - 1, auxiliary, destination, source);
}

int main() {
int n = 3; // Number of disks
towerOfHanoi(n, 'A', 'C', 'B'); // A = source, C = desti
nation, B = auxiliary
return 0;
}

Output:

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 35

 Move disk 1 from A to C
Move disk 2 from A to B
Move disk 1 from C to B
Move disk 3 from A to C
Move disk 1 from B to A
Move disk 2 from B to C
Move disk 1 from A to C

Conclusion:
The Tower of Hanoi problem is a great example of recursion. For 3 disks, it takes 7
steps to move all disks from the source rod to the destination rod. The number of
moves for \( n \) disks can be calculated as \( 2^n - 1 \).

Unit 3
Que 1) Write an algorithm for instertion sort method in c++
Sure, here's an algorithm for the Insertion Sort method in C++:

Insertion Sort Algorithm

1. Initialize:

Start from the second element (index 1) of the array.

Consider the element at the current index as the key.

2. Compare and Shift:

Compare the key with the elements in the sorted part of the array (i.e., the
elements before the current index).

Shift all the elements that are greater than the key one position to the right.

3. Insert the Key:

Place the key at its correct position in the sorted part of the array.

4. Repeat:

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 36

 Repeat steps 2 and 3 for all elements of the array.

C++ Code Implementation

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
void insertionSort(int arr[], int n) {
for (int i = 1; i < n; i++) {
int key = arr[i];
int j = i - 1;
while (j >= 0 && arr[j] > key) {
arr[j + 1] = arr[j];
j = j - 1;
}
arr[j + 1] = key;
}
}
void printArray(int arr[], int n) {
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++)
cout << arr[i] << " ";
cout << endl;
}
int main() {
int arr[] = {12, 11, 13, 5, 6};
int n = sizeof(arr) / sizeof(arr[0]);
cout << "Original array: ";
printArray(arr, n);
insertionSort(arr, n);
cout << "Sorted array: ";
printArray(arr, n);
return 0;
}

Explanation

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 37

 Initialization: The insertionSort function takes an array arr and its length n as
input.

Outer Loop: The loop starting from i = 1 to i < n iterates through the array
elements, treating each element as the key.

Inner Loop: The inner while loop compares the key with the sorted part of the
array (elements before the current index). If an element is greater than the key,
it shifts the element one position to the right.

Insertion: After finding the correct position for the key, it inserts the key at that
position.

Print Function: The printArray function prints the array.

This algorithm sorts the array in ascending order using the insertion sort method.

Que 2) Write an algorithm for insert an element in a queue

A queue is a fundamental data structure in computer science that follows the First
In, First Out (FIFO) principle. This means that the first element added to the queue
will be the first one to be removed, much like a line of people waiting to buy tickets
or to be served.

Characteristics of a Queue
1. FIFO Order: Elements are processed in the order they were added.

2. Two Main Operations:

Enqueue: Adding an element to the back (end) of the queue.

Dequeue: Removing an element from the front (beginning) of the queue.

Basic Operations
1. Enqueue: Adds an element to the end of the queue.

2. Dequeue: Removes and returns the element at the front of the queue.

3. Peek/Front: Returns the element at the front of the queue without removing it.

4. isEmpty: Checks if the queue is empty.

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 38

 5. Size: Returns the number of elements in the queue.

Types of Queues
1. Simple Queue (Linear Queue): Basic FIFO queue where elements are
enqueued at the rear and dequeued from the front.

2. Circular Queue: The last position is connected back to the first position to
make a circle, improving the use of storage by reusing vacated spaces.

3. Priority Queue: Each element is associated with a priority, and elements are
dequeued based on their priority rather than their order in the queue.

4. Deque (Double-Ended Queue): Elements can be added or removed from both

the front and the rear.

Circular Queue Insertion Algorithm

Definitions
queue : array to store the queue elements

front : index of the front element

rear : index of the rear element

size : maximum size of the queue

element : the element to be inserted

Initialization
Initially, set front = -1 and rear = -1 .

Algorithm
1. Check for Full Queue:

If ((rear + 1) % size) == front , then the queue is full. Display an overflow

message and exit.

2. Check for Empty Queue:

If front == -1 and rear == -1 , then the queue is empty.

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 39

 Set front = 0 and rear = 0 .

Insert the element at queue[rear] .

3. Normal Insertion:

Otherwise, calculate the new position of rear as (rear + 1) % size .

Insert the element at queue[rear] .

C++ Code Implementation

#include <iostream>
#define SIZE 5 // Define the maximum size of the queue
class CircularQueue {
private:
int queue[SIZE], front, rear;
public:
CircularQueue() : front(-1), rear(-1) {}
void enqueue(int element) {
if ((rear + 1) % SIZE == front) {
std::cout << "Queue Overflow" << std::endl;
return;
}
if (front == -1) front = 0;
rear = (rear + 1) % SIZE;
queue[rear] = element;
std::cout << "Inserted " << element << std::endl;
}
void display() {
if (front == -1) {
std::cout << "Queue is empty" << std::endl;
return;
}
std::cout << "Queue elements are: ";
for (int i = front; ; i = (i + 1) % SIZE) {
std::cout << queue[i] << " ";
if (i == rear) break;

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 40

 }
std::cout << std::endl;
}
};
int main() {
CircularQueue q;
q.enqueue(10);
q.enqueue(20);
q.enqueue(30);
q.enqueue(40);
q.enqueue(50); // This will cause an overflow
q.display();
return 0;
}

Explanation
1. Initialization:

A queue of fixed size SIZE is declared with front and rear initialized to 1 .

2. Enqueue Operation:

The enqueue function first checks if the queue is full by checking if the next
position of rear (modulo SIZE ) is equal to front .

If the queue is empty ( front == -1 and rear == -1 ), it initializes both front

and rear to 0 .

Otherwise, it increments rear modulo SIZE and inserts the element at the
new rear position.

3. Display Function:

The display function prints the elements from front to rear considering
the circular nature of the queue.

This algorithm ensures efficient insertion in a circular queue using array-based

implementation.

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 41

 Que 3) Explain selection sort method with suitable example
Selection sort is a simple comparison-based sorting algorithm. It works by
repeatedly finding the minimum (or maximum, depending on the sorting order)
element from the unsorted part of the list and putting it at the beginning (or end)
of the sorted part. The algorithm maintains two subarrays in a given array:

1. The subarray which is already sorted.

2. The remaining subarray which is unsorted.

Here are the steps for the selection sort algorithm:

1. Start with the first element in the array (let's call it i ).

2. Find the smallest element in the array from index i to the end.

3. Swap this smallest element with the element at index i .

4. Move to the next element (i.e., i = i + 1 ) and repeat the process until the
entire array is sorted.

Example
Let's sort the following array in ascending order using selection sort:
\[ 64, 25, 12, 22, 11 \]
Step-by-step process:

1. Initial array: \[ 64, 25, 12, 22, 11 \]

2. First pass:

Find the minimum element from index 0 to 4 (i.e., the whole array). The
minimum element is 11.

Swap 11 with the element at index 0.

Array after first pass: \[ 11, 25, 12, 22, 64 \]

3. Second pass:

Find the minimum element from index 1 to 4. The minimum element is 12.

Swap 12 with the element at index 1.

Array after second pass: \[ 11, 12, 25, 22, 64 \]

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 42

 4. Third pass:

Find the minimum element from index 2 to 4. The minimum element is 22.

Swap 22 with the element at index 2.

Array after third pass: \[ 11, 12, 22, 25, 64 \]

5. Fourth pass:

Find the minimum element from index 3 to 4. The minimum element is 25.

Swap 25 with the element at index 3.

Array after fourth pass: \[ 11, 12, 22, 25, 64 \]

6. Fifth pass:

The only remaining element is already in place.

The array is now sorted: \[ 11, 12, 22, 25, 64 \]

Pseudocode
Here's the pseudocode for selection sort:

for i = 0 to n-1
min_index = i
for j = i+1 to n-1
if array[j] < array[min_index]
min_index = j
swap array[i] with array[min_index]

Time Complexity
Best-case time complexity: O(n^2)

Average-case time complexity: O(n^2)

Worst-case time complexity: O(n^2)

Space Complexity

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 43

 Space complexity: O(1) (Selection sort is an in-place sorting algorithm,
meaning it requires only a constant amount of additional memory space)

Conclusion
Selection sort is easy to understand and implement but is inefficient on large lists
compared to more advanced algorithms such as quicksort, mergesort, or
heapsort. It's mainly useful for small datasets or educational purposes to illustrate
the concept of sorting.

Que 4)What is merging? Explain MergeSort with suitable example

in c++

What is Merging?
Merging is a process of combining two sorted lists into a single sorted list. It is a
fundamental operation used in various sorting algorithms and is essential for
algorithms like MergeSort. The concept of merging ensures that the final
combined list maintains the order of elements from both initial lists.

MergeSort Algorithm
MergeSort is a divide-and-conquer algorithm that divides the input array into two
halves, recursively sorts both halves, and then merges the sorted halves to
produce the sorted array. The key steps in MergeSort are:

1. Divide: Split the array into two halves.

2. Conquer: Recursively sort each half.

3. Combine: Merge the two sorted halves into a single sorted array.

MergeSort Example in C++

Here is a step-by-step example of how MergeSort works in C++:

1. Splitting the Array: Divide the array into two halves until each sub-array
contains a single element.

2. Merging: Merge the sub-arrays to produce a sorted array.

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 44

 Code Example

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
void merge(int arr[], int left, int mid, int right) {
int n1 = mid - left + 1;
int n2 = right - mid;
int leftArr[n1], rightArr[n2];
for (int i = 0; i < n1; i++)
leftArr[i] = arr[left + i];
for (int j = 0; j < n2; j++)
rightArr[j] = arr[mid + 1 + j];
int i = 0, j = 0, k = left;
while (i < n1 && j < n2) {
if (leftArr[i] <= rightArr[j])
arr[k++] = leftArr[i++];
else
arr[k++] = rightArr[j++];
}
while (i < n1) arr[k++] = leftArr[i++];
while (j < n2) arr[k++] = rightArr[j++];
}
void mergeSort(int arr[], int left, int right) {
if (left < right) {
int mid = left + (right - left) / 2;
mergeSort(arr, left, mid);
mergeSort(arr, mid + 1, right);
merge(arr, left, mid, right);
}
}
void printArray(int arr[], int size) {
for (int i = 0; i < size; i++)
cout << arr[i] << " ";
cout << endl;
}
int main() {

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 45

 int arr[] = {12, 11, 13, 5, 6, 7};
int arr_size = sizeof(arr) / sizeof(arr[0]);
cout << "Given array: ";
printArray(arr, arr_size);
mergeSort(arr, 0, arr_size - 1);
cout << "Sorted array: ";
printArray(arr, arr_size);
return 0;
}

Explanation
1. mergeSort Function:

Recursively divides the array into two halves until each sub-array contains
a single element.

Calls the merge function to combine the sorted halves.

2. merge Function:

Merges two sorted sub-arrays into a single sorted array.

Utilizes temporary arrays to hold the elements of the sub-arrays and then
merges them back into the original array.

3. printArray Function:

Prints the elements of the array.

Output

Given array: 12 11 13 5 6 7
Sorted array: 5 6 7 11 12 13

The above output demonstrates the sorted array after applying the MergeSort
algorithm.

Que 5) What is priority queue?Explain with example in c++

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 46

 A priority queue is an abstract data type that operates similar to a regular queue
but with an added feature: each element in the priority queue has a priority
associated with it. Elements are served based on their priority rather than their
order in the queue. The element with the highest priority is dequeued before
elements with lower priority.

Key Characteristics:
Priority: Each element has a priority. The queue processes elements in order
of priority.

Implementation: It can be implemented using various data structures,

including binary heaps, arrays, or linked lists.

Example in C++
Here’s a simple example of a priority queue implementation in C++ using the
Standard Template Library (STL):

#include <iostream>
#include <queue>
#include <vector>
using namespace std;
int main() {
priority_queue<int> pq;
pq.push(10);
pq.push(30);
pq.push(20);
pq.push(5);
cout << "Elements in the priority queue (highest to lowes
t):" << endl;
while (!pq.empty()) {
cout << pq.top() << " "; // Get the element with the
highest priority
pq.pop(); // Remove the element from
the queue
}
cout << endl;

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 47

 return 0;
}

Explanation of the Code:

1. Include Libraries: The code includes the necessary headers: <iostream> for
input-output operations and <queue> for using the priority queue.

2. Creating a Priority Queue: A priority queue of integers is created using

priority_queue<int> pq; .

3. Adding Elements: Elements are added to the priority queue using

pq.push(value); .

4. Accessing Elements: The element with the highest priority can be accessed
using pq.top() .

5. Removing Elements: The pq.pop() function removes the element with the
highest priority from the queue.

6. Output: The elements are printed in order of priority (highest to lowest).

Output
When you run this program, the output will be:

Elements in the priority queue (highest to lowest):

30 20 10 5

Unit 4
Que 1)What is binary Search tree?Explain with suitable.
A Binary Search Tree (BST) is a type of data structure that maintains a sorted
order of elements. Each node in a BST contains a key, and for any given node:

The left subtree contains keys less than the node's key.

The right subtree contains keys greater than the node's key.

This property allows for efficient searching, insertion, and deletion operations.

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 48

 Properties of a Binary Search Tree:
1. Node Structure: Each node has at most two children.

2. Ordered: The left child is less than the parent node, and the right child is
greater than the parent node.

3. No Duplicate Nodes: Generally, BSTs do not allow duplicate keys.

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

// Node structure for the BST

struct Node {
int key;
Node* left;
Node* right;
Node(int value) : key(value), left(nullptr), right(nullpt
r) {}
};

// Class for the Binary Search Tree

class BinarySearchTree {
private:
Node* root;

Node* insert(Node* node, int key) {

if (node == nullptr) return new Node(key);
if (key < node->key) node->left = insert(node->left,
key);
else if (key > node->key) node->right = insert(node->
right, key);
return node;
}

bool search(Node* node, int key) {

if (node == nullptr) return false;

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 49

 if (node->key == key) return true;
return key < node->key ? search(node->left, key) : se
arch(node->right, key);
}

public:
BinarySearchTree() : root(nullptr) {}

void insert(int key) { root = insert(root, key); }

bool search(int key) { return search(root, key); }
};

int main() {
BinarySearchTree bst;
bst.insert(50);
bst.insert(30);
bst.insert(70);

// Searching for a key

int searchKey = 30;
if (bst.search(searchKey)) {
cout << "Key " << searchKey << " found in the BST." <
< endl;
} else {
cout << "Key " << searchKey << " not found in the BS
T." << endl;
}

return 0;
}

Explanation of the Simplified Code:

1. Node Structure: The Node struct represents a single node in the BST with a
key and pointers to left and right children.

Explain the array respresentation of linked list in memory ? 50

 2. BinarySearchTree Class:

Contains the insert and search methods.

Insert Method: Recursively adds a new key to the tree while maintaining
the BST properties.

Search Method: Recursively checks if a key exists in the tree.

3. Main Function:

Creates a BST, inserts a few values, and searches for a specific key.

Output:
Running this code will output:
Key 30 found in the BST.

Que 2)What is graph?Explain how graphs are represented in a

memory using array
A graph is a data structure that consists of a set of vertices (or nodes) and a set
of edges (or links) connecting pairs of vertices. Graphs can be used to represent
various real-world problems, such as social networks, transportation systems, and
network routing.

Types of Graphs
1. Directed Graph (Digraph): The edges have a direction, going from one vertex
to another (e.g., A → B).

2. Undirected Graph: The edges do not have a direction (e.g., A — B).

3. Weighted Graph: Each edge has a weight or cost associated with it.

4. Unweighted Graph: Edges do not have weights.

5. Cyclic Graph: Contains at least one cycle (a path that starts and ends at the
same vertex).

6. Acyclic Graph: Does not contain cycles.

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 Representation of Graphs in Memory
Graphs can be represented in memory in various ways, with the two most
common representations being adjacency matrix and adjacency list. Below is an
explanation of representing graphs using an array-based adjacency matrix.

1. Adjacency Matrix
An adjacency matrix is a 2D array used to represent a graph. The rows and
columns of the matrix represent the vertices of the graph. If there is an edge
between two vertices, the corresponding cell in the matrix is set to a value
(typically 1 for unweighted graphs) indicating the presence of an edge. For
weighted graphs, the cell can hold the weight of the edge.

Structure: For a graph with \( V \) vertices, the adjacency matrix will be a \( V

\times V \) matrix.

Example:
Consider a simple undirected graph with 4 vertices (A, B, C, D) and the following
edges: A-B, A-C, B-D.

Vertices: A, B, C, D

Edges: A-B, A-C, B-D

The adjacency matrix would look like this:

A B C D

A 0 1 1 0

B 1 0 0 1

C 1 0 0 0

D 0 1 0 0

Explanation:

The row for vertex A has 1 s in the columns for B and C, indicating edges
A-B and A-C.

The row for vertex B has a 1 in the column for A and D, indicating edges
B-A and B-D.

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 The diagonal elements (A-A, B-B, etc.) are 0 because there are no self-
loops.

2. Adjacency List
An adjacency list is another common representation, especially for sparse graphs.
In this representation, each vertex maintains a list of adjacent vertices. This can
be implemented using an array of linked lists or dynamic arrays.
Example:
Using the same graph as above, the adjacency list representation would look like
this:

A: B, C

B: A, D

C: A

D: B

Summary
Graphs are versatile data structures that can be represented in memory using
various methods. The adjacency matrix is a straightforward way to represent
graphs in a 2D array, while the adjacency list provides a more space-efficient
representation for sparse graphs. Understanding these representations is
fundamental for implementing graph algorithms and solving graph-related
problems.

Que 3)Explain depth first search algorithm

Depth First Search (DFS) is an algorithm used to traverse or search through data
structures, particularly trees and graphs. It explores as far down a branch as
possible before backtracking. Here's a breakdown of how the DFS algorithm
works, along with an implementation in C++.

Key Characteristics of DFS:

Traversal Method: It uses a stack (can be implemented using recursion) to
remember the path being explored.

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 Exploration: It goes as deep as possible down one path before backing up
and exploring another.

Use Cases: It’s useful for scenarios like finding connected components,
topological sorting, solving puzzles with a single solution (like mazes), etc.

DFS Algorithm Steps:

1. Start from a selected node (root).

2. Mark the node as visited.

3. Explore each adjacent unvisited node recursively using DFS.

4. Repeat until all nodes are visited.

C++ Implementation
Here’s a simple implementation of DFS for a graph represented using an
adjacency list.

#include <iostream>
#include <vector>
using namespace std;
class Graph {
int vertices; // Number of vertices
vector<vector<int>> adj; // Adjacency list
public:
Graph(int v) : vertices(v), adj(v) {}
void addEdge(int u, int v) {
adj[u].push_back(v); // Add v to u's list
}
void DFSUtil(int v, vector<bool>& visited) {
visited[v] = true; // Mark the current node as visite
d
cout << v << " "; // Process the node
for (int adjNode : adj[v]) {
if (!visited[adjNode]) {
DFSUtil(adjNode, visited); // Visit unvisited
adjacent nodes

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 }
}
}
void DFS(int start) {
vector<bool> visited(vertices, false); // Track visit
ed nodes
DFSUtil(start, visited); // Start the recursive DFS
}
};
int main() {
Graph g(5); // Create a graph with 5 vertices
g.addEdge(0, 1);
g.addEdge(0, 2);
g.addEdge(1, 3);
g.addEdge(1, 4);
g.addEdge(2, 4);
cout << "Depth First Search starting from vertex 0:\n";
g.DFS(0); // Start DFS from vertex 0
return 0;
}

Explanation:
The Graph class contains a constructor to initialize the graph and methods to
add edges and perform DFS.

The DFSUtil function is a recursive helper function that marks nodes as visited
and prints them.

The DFS function initializes the visited vector and calls the DFSUtil function to
start the traversal.

In the main function, a graph is created, edges are added, and the DFS
traversal is initiated from vertex 0 .

To Compile and Run:

1. Copy the code into a file named small_dfs.cpp .

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 2. Compile using: g++ small_dfs.cpp -o small_dfs .

3. Run the executable: ./small_dfs .

Depth First Search starting from vertex 0:

0 1 3 4 2

Notes:
The order of nodes visited may vary based on the order in which edges are
added and how the adjacency list is constructed.

The recursive version of DFS can also be implemented using a similar logic
with a function call stack instead of an explicit stack. Let me know if you want
to see that implementation as well!

Que 4) Write an algorithm for traversing the binary tree in order

In-order traversal of a binary tree visits the nodes in the following order: left
subtree, root, and then right subtree. Here’s an algorithm for in-order traversal
using both recursive and iterative approaches.

Recursive Approach
1. Start at the root node.

2. Traverse the left subtree recursively.

3. Visit the root node (process the current node).

4. Traverse the right subtree recursively.

Recursive Approach

#include <iostream>

struct TreeNode {
int val;
TreeNode* left;

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 TreeNode* right;

TreeNode(int x) : val(x), left(nullptr), right(nullptr)

{}
};

void inOrderTraversal(TreeNode* root) {

if (root == nullptr) {
return; // Base case: if the node is null, return
}

inOrderTraversal(root->left); // Traverse left subtree

std::cout << root->val << " "; // Visit the root node
inOrderTraversal(root->right); // Traverse right subtree
}

int main() {
// Creating a simple binary tree
TreeNode* root = new TreeNode(1);
root->left = new TreeNode(2);
root->right = new TreeNode(3);
root->left->left = new TreeNode(4);
root->left->right = new TreeNode(5);

std::cout << "In-order Traversal: ";

inOrderTraversal(root); // Output: 4 2 5 1 3
std::cout << std::endl;

// Clean up memory (not shown for brevity)

return 0;
}

Iterative Approach

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 Here's how you can perform in-order traversal using an iterative approach with a
stack:

#include <iostream>
#include <stack>

struct TreeNode {
int val;
TreeNode* left;
TreeNode* right;

TreeNode(int x) : val(x), left(nullptr), right(nullptr)

{}
};

void inOrderTraversalIterative(TreeNode* root) {

std::stack<TreeNode*> stack;
TreeNode* current = root;

while (current != nullptr || !stack.empty()) {

// Reach the leftmost node of the current node
while (current != nullptr) {
stack.push(current);
current = current->left;
}

// Current must be null at this point, so we pop the

top node
current = stack.top();
stack.pop();

std::cout << current->val << " "; // Visit the root n

ode

// We have visited the node and its left subtree, now

traverse the right subtree

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 current = current->right;
}
}

int main() {
// Creating a simple binary tree
TreeNode* root = new TreeNode(1);
root->left = new TreeNode(2);
root->right = new TreeNode(3);
root->left->left = new TreeNode(4);
root->left->right = new TreeNode(5);

std::cout << "In-order Traversal (Iterative): ";

inOrderTraversalIterative(root); // Output: 4 2 5 1 3
std::cout << std::endl;

// Clean up memory (not shown for brevity)

return 0;
}

Explanation
1. Recursive Approach:

The function inOrderTraversal is called with the root node.

If the node is not null, it first recursively calls itself for the left child, then
prints the node value, and finally calls itself for the right child.

2. Iterative Approach:

A stack is used to keep track of the nodes.

The outer loop continues until there are no nodes left to visit.

The inner loop traverses to the leftmost node, pushing nodes onto the
stack.

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 Once it reaches a null node, it pops from the stack, visits that node, and
then traverses the right subtree.

Both approaches will yield the same in-order traversal output. You can choose
either based on your preference or specific use case.

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