LASERS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTATION 18EI55 Module I : Lasers -I Handout

RNS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Department of Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering (EIE)
V SEMESTER Academic Year : 2022-23
Subject : LASERS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTATION Sub Code : 18 EI 55
Faculty : Dr. Andhe Pallavi, Prof & HoD, EIE Dept.
Module I : Lasers -I: Introduction, Emission and absorption of radiation, Einstein relation,
population inversion, threshold conditions, Line shape function, population inversion and pumping
threshold conditions.
Lasers -II: Classes of LASER: Doped insulator LASERs, semiconductor LASERs, Gas LASERs,
Liquid dye LASERs.
Contents: Module I : Lasers -I
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Emission and absorption of radiation
1.3 Einstein relation
1.4 Population inversion
1.5 Threshold conditions
1.6 Line shape function
1.7 Population inversion and pumping threshold conditions

1.1 Introduction:
● "LASER" acronym for "Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation”
● In 1917, Albert Einstein showed the process of stimulated emission and
● in 1960, T H Maiman achieved the laser action at optical frequencies in Ruby.
● After 1960 – rapid development of lasers.
● Applications of lasers slow in the first decade.
● Now new applications are found every day.

A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on the
stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. A laser differs from other sources of light
in that it emits light coherently.

1.2 Emission and absorption of radiation

When an electron in an atom undergoes transitions between two energy states or levels,
it either emits or absorbs a photon, described by ν = ΔE / h
ν = wave frequency, ΔE = energy difference between 2 levels, h = Planck’s constant.
Consider a hypothetical atomic system with two energy
levels E1(lower energy level) and E2 (shown in Fig.
1.2.1).
ΔE = E2-E1 = Energy difference between 2 levels

Electron transitions may occur between the energy

levels.
These transitions give rise to emission / absorption of
radiation.
Fig. 1.2.1 Two energy level system ● Emission process is of 2 types – spontaneous
emission & stimulated emission.
● Absorption is stimulated absorption.
Q: Compare and contrast stimulated emission & spontaneous emission.

Dr. Andhe Pallavi, Prof & HoD, EIE Dept, RNSIT

LASERS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTATION 18EI55 Module I : Lasers -I Handout

Stimulated Absorption:
An electron in the lower energy level
E1, absorbs a photon and is excited to
upper energy level E2.
The photon is of frequency ν = ΔE / h
h – Planck’s constant. The black dot in the
fig. indicates the state of the atom before and after
the transition.
Energy level Diagram illustrating stimulated absorption.

Spontaneous Emission:
An electron in excited state (level E2)
may return to the ground state (E1) in a
random way, with the emission of a
photon.

Energy level Diagram illustrating spontaneous

emission
The average time the electron exists in the excited state before making a spontaneous transition is
called the Lifetime of excited state τ21.
The probability that a particular atom will undergo spontaneous emission within a time interval dt
dt
is given by A21 dt= . A21 = Spontaneous transition rate.
τ 21
Since the spontaneous radiation from any atom is emitted at random, the radiation emitted by a
large number of atoms will be ‘INCOHERENT’.

Stimulated Emission: An
electron in excited state
(level E2) is triggered to
return to the ground state
(E1) by the presence of
stimulating photon. This
transition results in the
emission of a photon.
Stimulated emission process results in
coherent radiation, as the waves associated
with the stimulating and stimulated photons
have identical frequencies, are in phase,
have the same state of polarization and
travel in the same direction.
COHERENT EMISSION - Amplitude of an
incident wave can ‘grow’ as it passes
through a collection of excited atoms –
amplification process.
Stimulated emission and stimulated Under normal conditions (thermal equilibrium) Probability of
absorption processes are regarded spontaneous process occurring is much higher (>105).
as the inverse of one another. Spontaneous Emission results in incoherent radiation (due to
random transitions)

1.3 Einstein relations

● Derive the relationship between Einstein’s coefficients. Einstein’s coefficients
● Also obtain the ratio of spontaneous emission to • Stimulated Absorption – B12
stimulated emission rate. • Spontaneous Emission – A21
• Stimulated Emission – B21

Dr. Andhe Pallavi, Prof & HoD, EIE Dept, RNSIT

LASERS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTATION 18EI55 Module I : Lasers -I Handout

Einstein relations
All the 3 processes - Stimulated Absorption, Spontaneous Emission, Stimulated Emission,
described by the parameters – B12 , A21 , B21 – Einstein’s coefficients
are related through the requirement that
for a ‘system in thermal equilibrium’
the rate of upward transitions (from E1 to E2) must equal
the rate of downward transitions (from E2 to E1).
Upward transition rate (absorption rate) = N 1 ϱ ν B12 🡪 Eqn. A
N 1 = number of atoms with energy E1
ϱ ν – Energy density at frequency ν ; ϱ ν =Nhν
N – number of photons available at frequency ν
Total downward Transition rate (emission rate) = stimulated emission + spontaneous emission rates
= N 2 ϱ ν B21+ N 2 A 21 🡪 Eqn. B
N 2 = atoms per unit volume with energy E2
for a ‘system in thermal equilibrium’ Eqn. A = Eqn. B
N 1 ϱ ν B12 = N 2 ϱ ν B21+ N 2 A 21
Rearranging the above equation: N 1 ϱ ν B12 - N 2 ϱ ν B21=N 2 A 21
ϱ ν ( N 1 B12−N 2 B 21) =N 2 A 21

N 2 A 21
ϱν=
( N 1 B 12−N 2 B21 )
Dividing by N 2 B 21 ; A 21
B21
ϱν=

( )
B12 N 1 🡪 Eqn. C
–1
B21 N 2

Populations of the various energy levels of a system in thermal equilibrium are given by the
Boltzmann statistics as:
−E j /kT
gjN0e
N j= ❑
∑
❑
gi e−E / kT i

N j= population density of energy level E j . N 0 = Total population density

g j = degeneracy of the jth level
(probability of occupation of all available states / energy levels is not the same. States have
a probability of occupation given by g j ; g = degeneracy.
− E1 /kT −E2 /kT − E1/ kT
g1 N 0 e g2 N 0 e g1 N0 e
N 1= ❑ N 2= ❑ ❑
∑
❑
gi e −Ei /kT
∑
❑
gi e−E / kT
i

N1 ∑
❑
g i e−E /kTi

=
N2 ❑

N 1 g1 (E − E )/kT N 1 g1 (hν)/ kT
= e 2 1
( E 2−E1 )=hν = e
🡪 Eqn. D
N 2 g2 N 2 g2

Dr. Andhe Pallavi, Prof & HoD, EIE Dept, RNSIT

LASERS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTATION 18EI55 Module I : Lasers -I Handout

A 21
B21
ϱν=

( )
Put Eqn. D in Eqn. C to get B12 g 1 hν/kT 🡪 Eqn. E
e –1
B21 g 2

g1
Note: generally =1 is often omitted.
g2

(e )
3
The system in thermal equilibrium gives 8 πh ν 1
ϱν=
rise to a radiation identical to black body c
3 hν/ kT
–1 🡪 Eqn. F
radiation, the radiation density of which is
g1 B12=g 2 B21 and
Comparing Eqn. E & Eqn. F, we get the A 21 8 πh ν 3
Einstein Relations = 3
B21 c

The second relation

(above) is used to
evaluate the
ratio of spontaneous
emission A21 to rate Rearranging Eqn. F:
of stimulated 8 πh ν
3
A 21
ϱν (e – 1)=
hν/ kT
which is equal to .
emission B21 for a c
3
B21
given pair of energy A 21 A 21
=ϱ ν ( e – 1 ) further leads to =( e – 1 ) =R
hν / kT hν/ kT
Hence
levels. The ratio is B21 ϱ ν B21
given by:
A 21
=( e – 1)
hν /kT
R=
ϱν B 21

1.4 Population Inversion

According to Boltzmann’s distribution [(e− E / kT )- shown by the exponential dotted line in Fig. 1.4.1]
i

for a system in thermal equilibrium, the populations (N) of a 2 -level energy system is given in Fig.
1.4.1 wherein if E2 > E 1 then N 2 < N 1
But for laser action; N 2 > N 1 is required, i.e., produce a population inversion (shown in Fig. 1.4.2).

Fig.1.4.1 – 2- level energy system in Thermal Fig. 1.4.2 - required population inversion for
equilibrium: 2 N < N 1 laser action i.e., N 2 > N 1
To create a population inversion, ‘Pumping’ is required.

Dr. Andhe Pallavi, Prof & HoD, EIE Dept, RNSIT

LASERS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTATION 18EI55 Module I : Lasers -I Handout

Pumping is an excitation process wherein a large amount of energy (pumping energy) is supplied to
the system, so that a large number of atoms are excited to upper level E2 .
Pumping produces a non-thermal equilibrium system.
Attainment of a ‘Population Inversion’ – In a 2-level system, even with intense irradiation of the
system (pumping), the best that can be achieved, is the equality of the populations of the 2 levels.
Hence use materials with 3 or 4 energy level systems. (possible as atomic systems have a large
number of energy levels.)
Pumping in a 3-level system
Fig. 1.4.3a & Fig.1.4.3b show the population of the energy levels before and after pumping.
Here E1is the metastable state. Population inversion is between E1 and E0 .
RUBY laser is an example of 3-level lasers.
Disadvantage: Requires very high pump powers.
• As the terminal level of the laser is the ground state, it implies that half of the ground state
atoms have to be pumped to upper state for population inversion

Fig. 1.4.3a : Boltzmann Distribution before Fig. 1.4.3b : Distribution after pumping & the
pumping transitions involved
Pumping in a 4-level System
• Much lower pumping requirements (as compared to 3-level system)
• If ΔE = (E1 – E0) – large compared to kT (operational temp);
• Populations of E1, E2, E3 small under thermal equilibrium conditions
• Atoms pumped to E3 – decay rapidly to E2 – metastable state (non – radiative process)
• Population inversion is between E2 & E1
• Short Lifetimes E3->E2 (enables the Population inversion between E2 & E1); & the Short
Lifetime E1->E0 (ensures E0 is replenished for pumping)

Dr. Andhe Pallavi, Prof & HoD, EIE Dept, RNSIT

LASERS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTATION 18EI55 Module I : Lasers -I Handout

Dr. Andhe Pallavi, Prof & HoD, EIE Dept, RNSIT

LASERS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTATION 18EI55 Module I : Lasers -I Handout

1.5 Threshold Conditions – Laser Losses

Steady state level of laser oscillation is reached when the rate of amplification is balanced by
the rate of loss.
When a population inversion is a necessary condition for laser action,
the minimum gain coefficient – ‘Threshold value’ – kth
must be large enough to overcome the losses and sustain oscillations.

The total loss of the system is due to a number of different processes,

the most important ones include:
1. Transmission at the mirrors
the transmission from one of the mirrors provides the useful output, the other mirror is
made as reflective as possible to minimize losses.
2. Absorption and scattering at the mirrors
3. Absorption in the laser medium due to transitions other than the desired transitions.
(most laser media have many energy levels, not all of which are involved in the laser
action).
4. Scattering at optical inhomogeneities in the laser medium – especially to solid state
lasers.
5. Diffraction losses at the mirrors.

Threshold Conditions – Derivation of kth – Threshold gain

Small Signal gain coefficient k is
derived as (not in syllabus)

γ - Loss coefficient; I0 – Initial

Irradiance; R1, R2 – Mirror reflectances
Traveling (distance of L) from M1 to M2, After reflection at M2, beam
Irradiance I increases to I =I 0 exp ⁡{ ( k −γ ) L } irradiance is R2 I 0 exp ⁡{ ( k−γ ) L }
After a Round Trip (2L) from M1 - M2 - M1– Final Irradiance R1 R 2 I 0 exp ⁡{ ( k −γ ) 2 L }
final Irradiance R 1 R2 I 0 exp ⁡{ ( k−γ ) 2 L }
G - Round Trip Gain G= = =R R exp ⁡{( k−γ ) 2 L }
Initial Irradiance I0 1 2
G = 1 for sustained oscillations where k = kth Rearranging:
R1 R 2 exp exp {( k th−γ ) 2 L }=1

Dr. Andhe Pallavi, Prof & HoD, EIE Dept, RNSIT

LASERS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTATION 18EI55 Module I : Lasers -I Handout

1.6 Line Shape Function - ν

Spectral lines have a finite wavelength (or frequency) spread, i.e., they have a spectral width
– can be seen both in emission and absorption spectra.
The transmission versus frequency for the transition between two energy states E1 & E2
would result in a bell shape curve.
Emission curve would be the inverse of the transmission curve. The shape of these emission
curves is described by the ‘line shape function g(ν)’, which can also be used to describe a
frequency probability curve.
g(ν).dν - probability that a given transition between the two energy levels will result in the
emission (or absorption) of a photon whose frequency lies between ν and ν+dν.
∞

g(ν) is normalized such that ∫ g ( ν ) dν =1

−∞
The form of the line shape function g(ν) depends on the particular mechanism responsible for
the ‘spectral broadening’ in a given transition. Some of the mechanisms are Doppler
mechanism, Collision (or pressure) broadening and natural (or lifetime) damping.
Mechanism responsible for Spectral broadening
Doppler Broadening
υx = component of velocity of atom along
the direction of observation
Depends on temperature ; M=atomic mass
Collision or Pressure Broadening Natural or Lifetime Damping
Molecular lasers – CO2 – small Doppler An atomic electron emitting a photon itself
linewidth - Due to low resonant freqs & leads to Shortening of wave trains – a
large molecular masses broadened spectral line
Occurs in doped insulator lasers – ions of
active medium collide with phonons –
quantized lattice vibrations – shortens the
emitted wave trains as phase is altered

Classification of Broadening Mechanisms

Dr. Andhe Pallavi, Prof & HoD, EIE Dept, RNSIT

 LASERS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTATION 18EI55 Module I : Lasers -I Handout

Homogeneous Broadening Inhomogeneous Broadening

All of the atoms of the collection Each atom has a slightly different Resonance freq
have the same transition center freq or lineshape for the same transition
and the same resonance line shape Observed lineshape is the average of the individual
Ex: Collision broadening ones Ex: Doppler broadening
Lorentzian lineshape Local variations in temp, pressure, applied
magnetic fields, crystal imperfections
Gaussian freq distribution

Doppler Broadening

1.7 Population Inversion and Pumping Threshold Conditions

Revision (not in current syllabus, but required for this section:

Population Inversion: N2 – N1 ; Lasing starts when N2 - N1 = Nth – threshold condition
Calculate the population (Nth) required to reach the lasing threshold

We have
Rearranging
At threshold the small signal gain coefficient (kth) is given by

Above eqn with kth

Dr. Andhe Pallavi, Prof & HoD, EIE Dept, RNSIT

 LASERS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTATION 18EI55 Module I : Lasers -I Handout

Einstein Coeff
Sub B21 :
Lasing threshold is achieved easily when g(νs)
is maximum. This is possible when νs = ν0 ->
Then, &
center of natural linewidth

Questions: 1. Calculate
the pumping power
required to reach the
threshold
2. Solve the rate
equations for the
particular system

Rate equations describe

the rate of change of the
populations of the laser
medium energy levels
in terms of the emission
and absorption processes
and pump rate

Consider the ideal four level system shown in Fig. above. In the 4-level laser system shown, energy
levels E2 & E1 are involved in population inversion for laser action. Hence, the rate equations for the
change of populations in N2 & N1 are derived below.

Assume E1>>KT, i.e., Thermal Nth (= N2 - N1)th is small compared to Ground state (E0)
population of E1 negligible population so that during lasing operation, the latter, i.e., Ground
ℜ1 & ℜ2 – rate of pumping of state population (N0) is not affected (else affects replenishment seen in 3-level
atoms into levels E1 & E2 lasers – Ruby)

g1 = g2 & hence B12 = B21

Rate Equation for N1 - 🡪 Eqn. 1

Process ℜ1 populates E1 (N1 increased), i.e., Reduces population inversion (N2-N1)
• Detrimental to laser action. Although unavoidable in many lasers, Ignore ℜ1

Rate Equation for N2 - 🡪 Eqn. 2

Assume that the system is being pumped at a steady rate then ; Eqn. 1 = Eqn. 2

Rearranging Eqn. 1 = Eqn. 2 (with ℜ1 = 0 in Eqn.1), we get: 🡪 Eqn. 3

For population inversion ¿ Eqn . 3−the following is required

• A21 < A10 , Else numerator will be negative

• Also, below threshold, lasing has not commenced yet, hence neglect ρ ν

ρν
neglecting , the Eqn. 3 is : 🡪 Eqn. 4

Dr. Andhe Pallavi, Prof & HoD, EIE Dept, RNSIT

 LASERS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTATION 18EI55 Module I : Lasers -I Handout

Eqn. 4 implies that population inversion (N2 – N1) increases linearly with pumping rate (ℜ2);
But insufficient inversion to maintain amplification (requires (N2 – N1) >1, but Eqn.4 numerator is < 1) and
most of the pump power appears as spontaneous emission

• A=
1
τ (
implies τ 10 < τ 21 ; In most lasers τ 21 ≫ τ 10 and 1−
A 21
A10 )
≅1

( )
At threshold, N 2−N 1 =N th: & ρ ν is negligible; A 21
1− ≅1
A10

N th
Rth =N th A 21=
τ 21

Population inversion in terms of

threshold pump rate
Each atom raised to level 2 (E1 -> E3 -> E2)
Requires an energy E3, so that
Total pumping power per unit volume
Required at threshold value is
Pth =E3∗Rth= E3∗N th /τ 21
If pump rate is increased above Pth; Beam
irradiance (laser o/p) increases linearly with
pump rate as shown in plot of population
inversion & laser output versus pump rate

Dr. Andhe Pallavi, Prof & HoD, EIE Dept, RNSIT