I° Origin of crude oil

Crude oil forms over millions of years from ancient marine organisms buried beneath
sediment layers. Heat and pressure transform their remains into hydrocarbons
underground
II° Composition of Crude Oils
Crude oil is a complex liquid mixture made up of a vast number of hydrocarbon compounds
that are made of hydrogen and carbon atoms. In addition, small amounts of organic
compounds containing sulphur, oxygen, nitrogen and metals such as vanadium, nickel, iron
and copper are also present.
There are three main classes of hydrocarbons.
1)​ Saturated hydrocarbons contain only carbon–carbon single bonds. They are known
as paraffins (or alkanes) if they are acyclic, or naphthenes (or cycloalkanes) if they
are cyclic.
2)​ Unsaturated hydrocarbons contain carbon–carbon multiple bonds (double, triple or
both). These are unsaturated because they contain fewer hydrogens per carbon than
paraffins. Unsaturated hydrocarbons are known as olefins. Those that contain a
carbon–carbon double bond are called alkenes, while those with carbon–carbon
triple bond are alkyenes.
3)​ Aromatic hydrocarbons are a special class of cyclic compounds related in structure
to benzene.

III°Physical Property Characterization Data

01.​Boiling Point Curves

Distillation of crude oils determines the yield of the products that can be obtained
from this crude oil when it is processed in a refinery; ASTM distillation or TBP are
batch distillations which differ mainly in the degree of fractionation
ASTM distillation involves using a straightforward apparatus with a flask, inclined
condenser, and graduated cylinder to collect fractions of a sample based on their
boiling points. The initial boiling point (IBP) marks the temperature when
condensation first occurs, while the end point (EP) indicates the maximum
temperature when most of the sample has been distilled (above 95%). Lighter cuts
like gasoline, kerosene, diesel, and heating oil are tested under atmospheric
pressure using ASTM D86, whereas heavier fractions undergo ASTM D1160
distillation at reduced pressure for precise separation and analysis.
TBP distillation is performed in columns with 15 theoretical plates or equilibrium
stages and a reflux ratio of 5. Rising vapors are condensed and collected either at a
constant rate of boiling points or constant rate of the sample vaporized. Operation is
at 760 mm Hg for boiling points below 400 C (750 F). For higher boiling point
fractions, the distillation is conducted at reduced pressures as low as 0.5 mm Hg.
Results from vacuum operations are extrapolated to atmospheric pressure. The high
degree of fractionation in this test gives an accurate component distribution
02.​Density
Specific Gravity Specific gravity for liquid oils is defined as:

API gravity defined as

03.​Pour Point:
The pour point is defined as the lowest temperature at which the sample will
flow. It indicates how easy or difficult it is to pump the oil, especially in cold
weather
04.​Viscosity:
The resistance to flow or the pumpability of the crude oil or petroleum fraction
is indicated by the viscosity. More viscous oils create a greater pressure drop
when they flow in pipes
05.​Refractive Index:
The refractive index is the ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum to the
velocity of light in the oil.
06.​The freezing point:
is the temperature at which the hydrocarbon liquid solidifies at atmospheric
pressure. It is one of the important property specifications for kerosene and jet
fuels due to the very low temperatures encountered at high altitudes in jet
planes
07.​ Aniline Point:
The lowest temperature at which an equal volume mixture of the petroleum oil
and aniline are miscible;Since aniline is an aromatic compound, a petroleum
fractions with high aromatic content will be miscible in aniline at ambient
conditions. However, if the oil has more paraffins, it will require a higher
temperature and thus higher aniline point in order to be miscible in aniline.
08.​Flash Point :
Is the lowest temperature at which enough vapors are released above the
liquid to potentially ignite if there's a spark. It is an important specification for
gasoline and naphtha related to safety in storage and transport in high
temperature environments. Flash point indicates the fire and explosion
potential of a fuel
09.​octane number :
 measures how resistant gasoline is to knocking in spark ignition engines. A
high octane number means the fuel resists auto-ignition during compression.
It is determined by comparing the fuel's knocking to a mix of n-heptane and
isooctane, where n-heptane has an octane number of 0 and isooctane has an
octane number of 100.
10.​Cetane Number:
The cetane number measures the ability for auto ignition and is essentially
the opposite of the octane number
11.​Reid Vapour Pressure:
measures how easily a liquid, like gasoline, evaporates. It shows the pressure
created by the vapors of the liquid at a set temperature (37.8°C or 100°F). A
higher RVP means the liquid evaporates more easily

IV° The refining process:

1.​ Desalting:
Crude oils contain water, salts (mostly magnesium, calcium and sodium chlorides)
and suspended solids. In the refining process we must remove these contaminants
so as to reduce corrosion, plugging, and fouling of equipment and to prevent
poisoning catalysts in processing units.
In chemical desalting, water and demulsifiers are added to the crude, which is
heated so that salts and other impurities dissolve in water, then held in a tank to
settle out.
Electrical desalting is the application of high-voltage electrostatic charges to
concentrate salty water particles in the bottom of the settling tank.
 2.​ Atm distillation

Preheating: Heat exchangers warm the crude with hot products streams from the
distillation column and pumparound streams, raising its temperature to 120–150°C.
Heatingin furnace: then, the furnace boosts its temperature to 330–385°C where
it’s partially vaporized .
Inside the column: the temperature decreases gradually from bottom to top. As the
vapor ascends,it comes into contact with the reflux and its temperature is reduced.
The column is about 50 meters tall with 30–50 trays,Reflux is provided by: the
returning liquid from the top condensate vapors and pump-around back streams
lower in the tower.
Separation: Different components of the crude oil, such as gasoline, diesel,
kerosene, and heavier components like fuel oil and asphalt, have different boiling
points. As the vapors rise and cool, these components condense at different heights
in the column according to their boiling points. Lighter components condense at
higher levels, while heavier components condense lower down.
Collection: The strippers contain several trays and the stripping is done using steam
at the bottom of the stripper or reboiler type side stream strippers. The end boiling
point of the side stream is controlled by the flow rate of the side stream product.
 3.​ Vacuum distillation
The atmospheric residue can be sent directly to the vacuum unit after heat
extraction in the crude preheat exchangers train. It is then heated in several
exchangers by the hot products and pump arounds of the vacuum unit. Final
heating to 380–415 Cs done in a fired heater. The vacuum unit distillates are
classified as light vacuum gas oil (LVGO), medium vacuum gas oil (MVGO),
and heavy vacuum gas oil (HVGO). In addition a vacuum residue is produced.
 4.​ Naphtha treatments

4.1 Catalytic reforming: (heavy naphthaC7/ C10*C11)

Objective: Increase the octane number of naphtha and produce aromatics.
Feed: Heavy naphtha.
Product: High-octane reformate (aromatics like benzene, toluene, xylene)
and hydrogen.

Catalytic reforming is the process of transforming C7–C10 hydrocarbons with

low octane numbers to aromatics and iso-paraffins which have high octane
numbers. Desired reactions include: dehydrogenation of naphthenes to form
aromatics; isomerization of naphthenes; dehydrocyclization of paraffins to
form aromatics; and isomerization of paraffins

In the platforming process, the naphtha feedstock is mixed with recycled

hydrogen, vaporized , and passed through a series of alternating furnace and
fixed-bed reactors containing a platinum catalyst. The effluent from the last
reactor is cooled and sent to a separator to permit removal of the
hydrogen-rich gas stream from the top of the separator for recycling. The
liquid product from the bottom of the separator is sent to a fractionator called
a stabilizer (debutanizer). It makes a bottom product called reformate;
butanes and lighter go overhead.

4.2 Isomerisation: (light naphta)

Objective: Increase the octane number of light naphtha.
Feed: Light naphtha (CC5/C6 hydrocarbons).
Product: Isomerized high-octane naphtha (branched alkanes like isopentane
and isohexane and isobutane)
 light naphtha feed is charged to one of the two dryer vessels. Thes vessels are filled
with molecular sieves, which remove water and protect the catalyst (pt). After mixing with
makeup hydrogen, It then enters a charge heater before entering the reactors. Two
reactors normally operate in series. The reactor effluent is cooled before entering the
product stabilizer.. The makeup hydrogen is typically provided by a catalytic reformer.
The stabilizer overhead vapors are caustic scrubbed for removal of the HCl formed from
organic chloride added to the reactor feed to maintain catalyst activity. After scrubbing,
the overhead gas then flows to fuel. The stabilized, isomerized liquid product from the
bottom of the column then passes to gasoline blending.

5.​ Hydrotreatment (naphta , kerosene and diesel, LVGO)

Process Objective: To remove contaminants (sulfur, nitrogen, metals) and

saturate olefins and aromatics to produce a clean product for further
processing or finished product sales.
Process steps: Feed is preheated using the reactor effluent Hydrogen is
combined with the feed and heated to the desired hydro-treating
temperature using a fired heater Feed and hydrogen pass downward in a
hydrogenation reactor packed with various types of catalyst depending
upon reactions desired (such as cobalt or nickel oxide/molybdenum oxide
catalyst) Reactor effluent is cooled and enter the high pressure separator
which separates the liquid hydrocarbon from the hydrogen,hydrogen sulfide
and ammonia gas. Acid gases are absorbed from the hydrogen in the
amine absorber Hydrogen is recycled with make-up hydrogen. Further
separation of LPG gases occurs in the low pressure separator prior to
sending the hydrocarbon liquids to fractionation

6.​ Vacuum gasoil treatment

6.1 Fluid Catalytic Cracking (FCC)

Objective: Convert heavy hydrocarbon fractions into lighter, more

valuable products.
Feed: atm gas oil, light vacuum gas oil, atmospheric residue.
Product: Gasoline, diesel, light gases (such as LPG), and coke

The process begins with preheating the heavy feedstock and mixing it
with a hot, powdered catalyst in a feed injector. This mixture enters a riser
reactor, where it is cracked into smaller molecules at high temperatures.
The resulting hydrocarbon vapors and catalyst are separated in a reactor
vessel, with the catalyst being stripped of hydrocarbons and sent to a
regenerator. In the regenerator, coke deposits are burned off, and the
regenerated catalyst is recycled back to the riser. The hydrocarbon vapors
are sent to a fractionator, where they are cooled and separated into
different fractions, which are further processed to meet product
specifications.
6.2 Hydrocracking
Objective: Convert heavy hydrocarbons to lighter products.
Feed: Heavy petroleum fractions.
Products: Gasoline, diesel, jet fuel.

To remove feed contaminants (nitrogen & sulfur) and to convert low value gas
oils to valuable products (naphtha, middle distillates, and ultra-clean lube base
stocks).
Process steps: "The process starts with mixing preheated feed with hot
hydrogen and passing it through a multi-bed reactor. Along the way, hydrogen
is added to cool down the reaction in stages. Inside the reactor, special
substances called catalysts change sulfur and nitrogen compounds into H2S
and NH3. Some of the feed also undergoes limited hydrocracking. After
leaving the reactor, the mixture goes through high and low pressure
separators before entering a fractionator. In the fractionator, different useful
products are separated out from the top, sides, and bottom of the mixture. The
bottom part of the fractionator might be sent back into a second reactor for
more processing, where conditions are tougher (higher temperatures and
pressures). The product from this second stage is separated from the
hydrogen and then put into the fractionator again
 P

6.3 Alkylation
Objective: Produce high-octane gasoline blending components.
Feed: Light olefins (like propylene, butylene) and isobutane.
Product: Alkylate (high-octane gasoline component).

Alkylation combines low-molecular-weight olefins (primarily a mixture of

propylene and butylene) with isobutene in the presence of a catalyst, either
sulfuric acid or hydrofluoric acid. The product is called alkylate (gasoline) and
is composed of a mixture of high-octane, branched-chain paraffinic
hydrocarbons