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Introduction to Quantum Computing
 Published 2023 by River Publishers
River Publishers
Alsbjergvej 10, 9260 Gistrup, Denmark
www.riverpublishers.com

Distributed exclusively by Routledge

605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

Introduction to Quantum Computing / by Ahmed Banafa.

© 2023 River Publishers. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval systems, or transmitted in any form or by any
means, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written
permission of the publishers.

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa

business

ISBN 978-87-7022-841-1 (paperback)

ISBN 978-10-0096-238-3 (online)

ISBN 978-1-003-44023-9 (ebook master)

A Publication in the River Publishers series

RAPIDS SERIES IN COMPUTING AND INFORMATION SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY

While every effort is made to provide dependable information, the

publisher, authors, and editors cannot be held responsible for any errors
or omissions.
 Introduction to Quantum Computing

Ahmed Banafa
San Jose State University, USA

River Publishers
In the loving memory of my son Malik
 Contents

Preface ix

About the Author xi

1 What is Quantum Computing? 1

1.1 A Comparison of Classical and Quantum Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Quantum Superposition and Entanglement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Difficulties with Quantum Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 The Future of Quantum Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Quantum Cryptography 5
2.1 Problems with Using Quantum Cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

3 Quantum Internet 9
3.1 What is the Quantum Internet? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2 Quantum Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

4 Quantum Teleportation 13
4.1 Quantum Teleportation: Paving the Way for a Quantum Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

5 Quantum Computing and the IoT 17

5.1 A Comparison of Classical and Quantum Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

vii
Contents

5.2 Quantum Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

6 Quantum Computing and Blockchain: Myths and Facts 21

6.1 Difficulties with Quantum Computers [31] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6.2 What is Quantum Supremacy? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6.3 Quantum Cryptography? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

7 Quantum Computing and AI: A Mega-Buzzword 25

7.1 What is Quantum Computing? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
7.2 Difficulties with Quantum Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
7.3 Applications of Quantum Computing and AI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
7.4 Processing Large Sets of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
7.5 Solve Complex Problem Faster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
7.6 Better Business Insights and Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
7.7 Integration of Multiple Sets of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
7.8 The Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

8 Quantum Computing Trends 31

8.1 A Comparison of Classical and Quantum Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
8.2 Physical vs. Logical Qubits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
8.3 Quantum Superposition and Entanglement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
8.4 Quantum Emulator/Simulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
8.5 Quantum Annealer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
8.6 Noisy Intermediate-scale Quantum (NISQ) Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
8.7 Universal Quantum Computers/Cryptographically Relevant Quantum Computers (CRQC) 35
8.8 Post-quantum/Quantum-resistant Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
8.9 Difficulties with Quantum Computers [41] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

References 37

Index 39

viii
 Preface

Quantum Computing is the area of study focused on developing computer

technology based on the principles of quantum theory. Tens of billions of public
and private capitals are being invested in quantum technologies. Countries
across the world have realized that quantum technologies can be a major
disruptor of existing businesses, they have collectively invested billions of
dollars in quantum research and applications. In this book you will learn the
difference between quantum computing and classic computing, also different
categories of quantum computing will be discussed in details, applications of
quantum computing in AI, IoT, Blockchain, communications, and encryption
will be covered, in addition, quantum internet, quantum cryptography, quantum
teleportation, and post-quantum technologies will be explained.

This is a list of the chapters of the book:

Chapter 1 : What is Quantum Computing?

Chapter 2: Quantum Cryptography
Chapter 3: Quantum Internet
Chapter 4 : Quantum Teleportation
Chapter 5: Quantum Computing and the IoT
Chapter 6: Quantum Computing and Blockchain: Myths and Facts
Chapter 7 : Quantum Computing and AI: A Mega-Buzzword
Chapter 8: Quantum Computing Trends

Audience

This is book is for everyone who would like to have a good understanding of
Quantum Computing and its applications and its relationship with business
operations, and also gain insight to other transformative technologies like
IoT, cloud computing, deep learning, Blockchain, Big Data and wearable
technologies. The audience includes: C-Suite executives, IT managers,

ix
Preface

marketing and sales professionals, lawyers, product and project managers,

business professionals, journalists, students.

Acknowledgment

I am grateful for all the support I received from my family during the stages of
writing this book.

x
 About the Author

Professor Ahmed Banafa has extensive experience in research, operations and

management, with a focus on IoT, Blockchain, Cybersecurity and AI. He is the
recipient of the Certificate of Honor from the City and County of San Francisco
and Author & Artist Award 2019 of San Jose State University. He was named as
No. 1 tech voice to follow, technology fortune teller and influencer by LinkedIn
in 2018, his research has featured on Forbes, IEEE and MIT Technology Review,
and he has been interviewed by ABC, CBS, NBC, CNN, BBC, NPR, Washington
Post, and Fox. He is a member of the MIT Technology Review Global Panel.
He is the author of the book Secure and Smart Internet of Things (IoT) using
Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence (AI) which won three awards – the San Jose
State University Author and Artist Award, One of the Best Technology Books of
all Time Award, and One of the Best AI Models Books of All Time Award. His
second book was Blockchain Technology and Applications, which won San Jose
State University Author and Artist, One of the Best New Private Blockchain
Books and is used at Stanford University and other prestigious schools in
the USA. His most recent book is Quantum Computing. He studied Electrical
Engineering at Lehigh University, Cybersecurity at Harvard University and
Digital Transformation at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).

xi
 CHAPTER

What is Quantum Computing?

Quantum computing is the area of study focused on developing computer

technology based on the principles of quantum theory. The quantum computer,
following the laws of quantum physics, would gain enormous processing power

1
What is Quantum Computing?

through the ability to be in multiple states and to perform tasks using all
possible permutations simultaneously.

1.1 A Comparison of Classical and Quantum Computing

Classical computing relies, at its ultimate level, on principles expressed by

Boolean algebra. Data must be processed in an exclusive binary state at any
point in time or bits. While the time that each transistor or capacitor needs to
be either in 0 or 1 before switching states is now measurable in billionths of
a second, there is still a limit as to how quickly these devices can be made to
switch state. As we progress to smaller and faster circuits, we begin to reach
the physical limits of materials and the threshold for classical laws of physics
to apply. Beyond this, the quantum world takes over. [1]

In a quantum computer, a number of elemental particles such as electrons

or photons can be used with either their charge or polarization acting as a
representation of 0 and/or 1. Each of these particles is known as a quantum bit,
or qubit; the nature and behavior of these particles form the basis of quantum
computing.

1.2 Quantum Superposition and Entanglement

The two most relevant aspects of quantum physics are the principles of
superposition and entanglement.

Superposition: Think of a qubit as an electron in a magnetic field. The electron’s

spin may be either in alignment with the field, which is known as a spin-up
state, or opposite to the field, which is known as a spin-down state. According to
quantum law, the particle enters a superposition of states, in which it behaves
as if it were in both states simultaneously. Each qubit utilized could take a
superposition of both 0 and 1.

Entanglement: Particles that have interacted at some point retain a type of

connection and can be entangled with each other in pairs, in a process known
as correlation. Knowing the spin state of one entangled particle – up or down
– allows one to know that the spin of its mate is in the opposite direction.
Quantum entanglement allows qubits that are separated by incredible distances
to interact with each other instantaneously (not limited to the speed of light).
No matter how great the distance between the correlated particles, they will
remain entangled as long as they are isolated.

2
 What is Quantum Computing?

Taken together, quantum superposition and entanglement create an

enormously enhanced computing power. Where a 2-bit register in an ordinary
computer can store only one of four binary configurations (00, 01, 10, or 11)
at any given time, a 2-qubit register in a quantum computer can store all four
numbers simultaneously, because each qubit represents two values. If more
qubits are added, the increased capacity is expanded exponentially. [2]

1.3 Difficulties with Quantum Computers

• Interference: During the computation phase of a quantum calculation, the slightest

disturbance in a quantum system (say a stray photon or a wave of EM radiation) causes the
quantum computation to collapse, a process known as de-coherence. A quantum computer
must be totally isolated from all external interference during the computation phase.
• Error correction: Given the nature of quantum computing, error correction is ultra critical –
even a single error in a calculation can cause the validity of the entire computation to collapse.
• Output observance: Closely related to the above two, retrieving output data after a quantum
calculation is complete risks corrupting the data. [3]

1.4 The Future of Quantum Computing

The biggest and most important one is the ability to factorize a very large
number into two prime numbers. This is really important because this is what
almost all encryption of internet applications uses and can be de-encrypted.
A quantum computer should be able to calculate the positions of individual
atoms in very large molecules like polymers and in viruses relatively quickly. If
you have a quantum computer you could use it, and the way that the particles
interact with each other, to develop drugs and understand how molecules work a
bit better.Even though there are many problems to overcome, the breakthroughs
in the last 15 years, and especially in the last 3, have made some form of practical
quantum computing possible. However, the potential that this technology offers
is attracting tremendous interest from both the government and the private
sector. It is this potential that is rapidly breaking down the barriers to this
technology, but whether all barriers can be broken, and when, is very much an
open question. [4, 5]

3
 CHAPTER

Quantum Cryptography

Quantum cryptography uses physics to develop a cryptosystem completely

secure against being compromised, without the sender or the receiver of
messages being known. The word quantum itself refers to the most fundamental
behavior of the smallest particles of matter and energy.

Quantum cryptography is different from traditional cryptographic systems

in that it relies more on physics, rather than mathematics, as a key aspect of its
security model. [7]

Essentially, quantum cryptography is based on the usage of individual

particles/waves of light (photon) and their intrinsic quantum properties to
develop an unbreakable cryptosystem (because it is impossible to measure the
quantum state of any system without disturbing that system).

5
Quantum Cryptography

Quantum cryptography uses photons to transmit a key. Once the key is

transmitted, coding and encoding using the normal secret-key method can take
place. But how does a photon become a key? How do you attach information to
a photon’s spin? [8]

This is where binary code comes into play. Each type of a photon’s spin
represents one piece of information – usually a 1 or a 0, for binary code. This
code uses strings of 1s and 0s to create a coherent message. For example,
11100100110 could correspond to h-e-l-l-o. So a binary code can be assigned to
each photon – for example, a photon that has a vertical spin ( | ) can be assigned
a 1.

“If you build it correctly, no hacker can hack the system. The question is
what it means to build it correctly,” said physicist Renato Renner from the
Institute of Theoretical Physics in Zurich. [9]

Regular, non-quantum encryption can work in a variety of ways but

generally a message is scrambled and can only be unscrambled using a secret
key. The trick is to make sure that whomever you’re trying to hide your
communication from doesn’t get their hands on your secret key. Cracking the
private key in a modern crypto system would generally require figuring out the
factors of a number that is the product of two insanely huge prime numbers.
The numbers are chosen to be so large that, with the given processing power
of computers, it would take longer than the lifetime of the universe for an
algorithm to factor their product.

However, such encryption techniques have their vulnerabilities. Certain

products – called weak keys – happen to be easier to factor than others. Also,
Moore’s Law continually ups the processing power of our computers. Even more
importantly, mathematicians are constantly developing new algorithms that
allow for easier factorization. Quantum cryptography avoids all these issues.
Here, the key is encrypted into a series of photons that get passed between two
parties trying to share secret information. The Heisenberg uncertainty principle
dictates that an adversary can’t look at these photons without changing or
destroying them.

“In this case, it doesn’t matter what technology the adversary has, they’ll
never be able to break the laws of physics,” said physicist Richard Hughes
of Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico, who works on quantum
cryptography. [10]

6
 Quantum Cryptography

2.1 Problems with Using Quantum Cryptography

However, in practice, quantum cryptography comes with its own load of

weaknesses. It was recognized in 2010, for instance, that a hacker could blind
a detector with a strong pulse, rendering it unable to see the secret-keeping
photons.

Renner points to many other problems. Photons are often generated using
a laser tuned to such a low intensity that it is producing one single photon
at a time. There is a certain probability that the laser will make a photon
encoded with your secret information and then a second photon with that same
information. In this case, all an enemy has to do is steal that second photon
and they could gain access to your data while you would be none the wiser.
Alternatively, noticing when a single photon has arrived can be tricky. Detectors
might not register that a particle has hit them, making you think that your
system has been hacked when it is really quite secure. [11]

“If we had better control over quantum systems than we have with today’s
technology” then perhaps quantum cryptography could be less susceptible to
problems,” said Renner. But such advances are at least 10 years away. Still,
he added, no system is 100% perfect and even more advanced technology will
always deviate from theory in some ways. A clever hacker will always find a way
to exploit such security holes.

Any encryption method will only be as secure as the humans running it,
added Hughes. Whenever someone claims that a particular technology “is
fundamentally unbreakable, people will say that’s snake oil,” he said. “Nothing
is unbreakable.” [12]

7
 CHAPTER

Quantum Internet

Building a quantum internet is a key ambition for many countries around

the world as such a breakthrough will give them competitive advantage in a
promising disruptive technology, and opens a new world of innovations and
unlimited possibilities.

9
Quantum Internet

Recently the US Department of Energy (DoE) published the first blueprint

of its kind, laying out a step-by-step strategy to make the quantum internet
dream come true. The main goal is to make it impervious to any cyber hacking.
It will “metamorphosize our entire way of life,” says the Department of Energy.
Nearly $625 million in federal funding is expected to be allocated to the
project. A quantum internet would be able to transmit large volumes of data
across immense distances at a rate that exceeds the speed of light. You can
imagine all the applications that could benefit from such speed.

Traditional computer data is coded in either zeros or ones. Quantum

information is superimposed in both zeros and ones simultaneously. Academics,
researchers, and IT professionals will need to create devices for the
infrastructure of quantum internet including: quantum routers, repeaters,
gateways, hubs, and other quantum tools. A whole new industry will be
born based on the idea of a quantum internet existing in parallel with the
current ecosystem of companies we have in a regular internet. The “traditional
internet”, as the regular internet is sometimes called, will still exist. It
is expected that large organizations will rely on the quantum internet to
safeguard data, but that individual consumers will continue to use the classical
internet. [13]

Experts predict that the financial sector will benefit from the quantum
internet when it comes to securing online transactions. The healthcare sectors
and the public sectors are also expected to see benefits. In addition to providing
a faster, safer internet experience, quantum computing will better position
organizations to solve complex problems, like supply chain management.
Furthermore, it will expedite the exchange of vast amounts of data, and carrying
out large-scale sensing experiments in astronomy, materials discovery, and life
sciences. [13, 15]

But first let’s explain some of the basic terms of the quantum world: Quantum
computing is the area of study focused on developing computer technology
based on the principles of quantum theory. The quantum computer, following
the laws of quantum physics, would gain enormous processing power through
the ability to be in multiple states, and to perform tasks using all possible
permutations simultaneously. [14]

In a quantum computer, a number of elemental particles such as electrons

or photons can be used with either their charge or polarization acting as a
representation of 0 and/or 1. Each of these particles is known as a quantum bit,
or qubit, the nature and behavior of these particles form the basis of quantum
computing. [14]

10
 Quantum Internet

3.1 What is the Quantum Internet?

The quantum internet is a network that will let quantum devices exchange some
information within an environment that harnesses the odd laws of quantum
mechanics. In theory, this would lend the quantum internet unprecedented
capabilities that are impossible to carry out with today’s web applications.

In the quantum world, data can be encoded in the state of qubits, which
can be created in quantum devices like a quantum computer or a quantum
processor. And the quantum internet, in simple terms, will involve sending
qubits across a network of multiple quantum devices that are physically
separated. Crucially, all of this would happen thanks to the wild properties that
are unique to quantum states.

That might sound similar to the standard internet, but sending qubits
around through a quantum channel, rather than a classical one, effectively
means leveraging the behavior of particles when taken at their smallest scale –
so-called “quantum states”.

Unsurprisingly, qubits cannot be used to send the kind of data we

are familiar with, like emails and WhatsApp messages. But the strange
behavior of qubits is opening up huge opportunities in other, more niche
applications. [13]

3.2 Quantum Communications

One of the most exciting avenues that researchers, armed with qubits, are
exploring, is communications security. [13] Quantum security leads us to the
concept of quantum cryptography which uses physics to develop a cryptosystem
completely secure against being compromised without knowledge of the sender
or the receiver of the messages.

Essentially, quantum cryptography is based on the usage of individual

particles/waves of light (photon) and their intrinsic quantum properties to
develop an unbreakable cryptosystem (because it is impossible to measure the
quantum state of any system without disturbing that system). [16] Quantum
cryptography uses photons to transmit a key. Once the key is transmitted, coding
and encoding using the normal secret-key method can take place. But how
does a photon become a key? How do you attach information to a photon’s
spin? [16] This is where binary code comes into play. Each type of a photon’s
spin represents one piece of information – usually a 1 or a 0, for binary code.

11
Quantum Internet

This code uses strings of 1s and 0s to create a coherent message. For example,
11100100110 could correspond to h-e-l-l-o. So a binary code can be assigned
to each photon, for example, a photon that has a vertical spin ( | ) can be
assigned a 1.

Regular, non-quantum encryption can work in a variety of ways but

generally a message is scrambled and can only be unscrambled using a secret
key. The trick is to make sure that whomever you’re trying to hide your
communication from doesn’t get their hands on your secret key. However, such
encryption techniques have their vulnerabilities. Certain products – called
weak keys – happen to be easier to factor than others. Also, Moore’s law
continually ups the processing power of our computers. Even more importantly,
mathematicians are constantly developing new algorithms that allow for easier
factorization of the secret key. [16]

Quantum cryptography avoids all these issues. Here, the key is encrypted
into a series of photons that get passed between two parties trying to share
secret information. The Heisenberg uncertainty principle dictates that an
adversary can’t look at these photons without changing or destroying them. [16]

12
 CHAPTER

Quantum Teleportation

Quantum teleportation is a technique for transferring quantum information

from a sender at one location to a receiver some distance away. While
teleportation is commonly portrayed in science fiction as a means to transfer

13
Quantum Teleportation

Figure 4.1: Spooky action at a distance.

physical objects from one location to the next, quantum teleportation only
transfers quantum information. An interesting note is that the sender knows
neither the location of the recipient nor the quantum state that will be
transferred. [17]

For the first time, a team of scientists and researchers have achieved
sustained, high-fidelity “quantum teleportation” – the instant transfer of
“qubits”, the basic unit of quantum information. The collaborative team, which
includes NASA’s jet propulsion laboratory, successfully demonstrated sustained,
long-distance teleportation of qubits of photons (quanta of light) with fidelity
greater than 90%. The qubits (quantum bits) were teleported 44 km (27 miles)
over a fiber-optic network using state-of-the-art single-photon detectors and
off-the-shelf equipment. [20]

Quantum teleportation is the transfer of quantum states from one location

to another. Through quantum entanglement, two particles in separate locations
are connected by an invisible force, famously referred to as “spooky action
at a distance” by Albert Einstein (Figure 4.1). Regardless of the distance, the

14
 Quantum Teleportation

encoded information shared by the “entangled” pair of particles can be passed

between them. [20]

By sharing these quantum qubits, the basic units of quantum computing,

researchers are hoping to create networks of quantum computers that can
share information at blazing-fast speeds. However, keeping this information
flow stable over long distances has proven extremely difficult, and researchers
are now hoping to scale up such a system, using both entanglement to send
information and quantum memory to store it as well. [20]

On the same front, researchers have advanced their quantum technology

researches with a chip that could be scaled up and used to build the quantum
simulator of the future using nanochip that allows them to produce enough
stable photons encoded with quantum information to scale up the technology.
The chip, which is said to be less than one-tenth of the thickness of a human
hair, may enable the researchers to achieve “quantum supremacy” – where a
quantum device can solve a given computational task faster than the world’s
most powerful supercomputer. [20]

But first let’s explain some of the basic terms of the quantum world: Quantum
computing is the area of study focused on developing computer technology
based on the principles of quantum theory. The quantum computer, following
the laws of quantum physics, would gain enormous processing power through
the ability to be in multiple states, and to perform tasks using all possible
permutations simultaneously. [18]

4.1 Quantum Teleportation: Paving the Way for a Quantum Internet

In July, the US Department of Energy unveiled a blueprint for the first quantum
internet, connecting several of its National Laboratories across the country.
A quantum internet would be able to transmit large volumes of data across
immense distances at a rate that exceeds the speed of light. You can imagine
all the applications that can benefit from such speed. [18]

Traditional computer data is coded in either zeros or ones. Quantum

information is superimposed in both zeros and ones simultaneously. Academics,
researchers and IT professionals will need to create devices for the
infrastructure of quantum internet including: quantum routers, repeaters,
gateways, hubs, and other quantum tools. A whole new industry will be born
based on the idea of the quantum internet existing in parallel to the current
ecosystem of companies we have in regular internet. [18] The “traditional
internet”, as the regular internet is sometimes called, will still exist. It

15
Quantum Teleportation

is expected that large organizations will rely on the quantum internet to

safeguard data, but that individual consumers will continue to use the classical
internet. [18]

Experts predict that the financial sector will benefit from the quantum
internet when it comes to securing online transactions. The healthcare sectors
and the public sectors are also expected to see benefits. In addition to providing
a faster, safer internet experience, quantum computing will better position
organizations to solve complex problems like supply chain management.
Furthermore, it will expedite the exchange of vast amounts of data, and carrying
out large-scale sensing experiments in astronomy, materials discovery and life
sciences. [18]

16
 CHAPTER

Quantum Computing and the IoT

Consumers, companies, and governments will install 40 billion IoT devices

globally. Smart tech finds its way into every business and consumer domain
there is – from retail to healthcare, from finances to logistics – and a missed
opportunity strategically employed by a competitor can easily qualify as a
long-term failure for companies who don’t innovate.

17
Quantum Computing and the IoT

Moreover, the 2020 challenges, including : data breaches, malware and

ransomware that paralyzed IoT components namely sensors, networks, cloud,
and applications, just confirmed the need to secure all four components of
the IoT: model: sensors, networks (communications), analytics (cloud), and
applications [21, 23].

One of the top candidates to help in securing the IoT is quantum computing;
while the idea of convergence of IoT and quantum computing is not a new
topic, it has been discussed in many works of literature and covered by various
researchers, but nothing is close to a practical application so far. Quantum
computing is not ready yet, it is years away from deployment on a commercial
scale. To understand the complexity of this kind of convergence, first you need
to recognize the security issues of IoT, and second comprehend the complicated
nature of quantum computing.

The IoT system’s diverse security issues include [4, 5, 7]:

• Data breaches: IoT applications collect a lot of user data, most of it sensitive or personal, to
operate and function correctly. As such, it needs encryption protection.
• Data authentication: Some devices may have adequate encryption in place but it can still be
open to hackers if the authenticity of the data that is communicated to and from the IoT device
cannot be authenticated.
• Side-channel attacks: Certain attacks focus on the data and information it can gain from a
system’s implementation rather than vulnerabilities in the implementation’s algorithms.
• Irregular updates: Due to rapid advances in the IoT industry, a device that may have been
secure on its release may no longer be secure if its software is not updated regularly. Add to that
the famous SolarWinds supply chain attack of 2020 which infected over 18,000 companies and
government agencies using updates of office applications and network monitoring tools.
• Malware and ransomware: Malware refers to the multitude of malicious programs that
typically infect a device and influence its functioning whereas ransomware has the capability
to lock a user out of their device, usually requesting a “ransom” to gain full use back again, paid
by the cryptocurrency “Bitcoin”.

5.1 A Comparison of Classical and Quantum Computing

Classical computing relies, at its ultimate level, on principles expressed by a

branch of math called Boolean algebra. Data must be processed in an exclusive
binary state at any point in time or bits. While the time that each transistor or
capacitor needs to be either in 0 or 1 before switching states is now measurable
in billionths of a second, there is still a limit as to how quickly these devices can
be made to switch state. As we progress to smaller and faster circuits, we begin

18
 Quantum Computing and the IoT

to reach the physical limits of materials and the threshold for classical laws of
physics to apply. Beyond this, the quantum world takes over.

In a quantum computer, several elemental particles such as electrons or

photons can be used with either their charge or polarization acting as a
representation of 0 and/or 1. Each of these particles is known as a quantum bit,
or qubit, the nature and behavior of these particles form the basis of quantum
computing [22].

5.2 Quantum Communications

One of the most exciting avenues that researchers, armed with qubits, are
exploring is communications security. Quantum security leads us to the
concept of quantum cryptography which uses physics to develop a cryptosystem
completely secure against being compromised without the knowledge of the
sender or the receiver of the messages. Essentially, quantum cryptography is
based on the usage of individual particles/waves of light (photon) and their
intrinsic quantum properties to develop an unbreakable cryptosystem (because
it is impossible to measure the quantum state of any system without disturbing
that system).

Quantum cryptography uses photons to transmit a key. Once the key is

transmitted, coding and encoding using the normal secret-key method can take
place. But how does a photon become a key? How do you attach information to a
photon’s spin? This is where binary code comes into play. Each type of a photon’s
spin represents one piece of information – usually a 1 or a 0, for binary code.
This code uses strings of 1s and 0s to create a coherent message. For example,
11100100110 could correspond to h-e-l-l-o. So a binary code can be assigned
to each photon – for example, a photon that has a vertical spin ( | ) can be
assigned a 1.

Quantum cryptography avoids all these issues. Here, the key is encrypted
into a series of photons that get passed between two parties trying to
share secret information. Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle dictates that
an adversary can’t look at these photons without changing or destroying
them [22, 24].

Quantum Computing and IoT

With its capabilities, quantum computing can help address the challenges and
issues that hamper the growth of IoT. Some of these capabilities are [3]:

19
Quantum Computing and the IoT

• Optimized complex computation power: With quantum computing the speed is incredibly
high; IoT benefits from this speed since IoT devices generate a massive amount of data that
requires heavy computation and other complex optimization.
• Faster validation and verification process: Quantum computing addresses this concern
as it can speed up the verification and validation process across all the systems several times
faster while ensuring constant optimization of the systems.
• More secure communications: A more secure communication is possible through quantum
cryptography, as explained before. The complexity serves as a defense against cyberattacks
including data breaches, authentication, and malware, and ransomware.

The Road Ahead

Quantum computing is still in its development stage with tech giants such as
IBM, Google, and Microsoft putting in resources to build powerful quantum
computers. While they have been able to build machines containing more and
more qubits, for example, Google announced in 2019 they achieved “quantum
supremacy”, the challenge is to get these qubits to operate smoothly and with
fewer errors. But with the technology being very promising, continuous research
and development are expected until such time that it reaches widespread
practical applications for both consumers and businesses [23, 26].

IoT is expanding as we depend on our digital devices more every day.

Furthermore, the WFH (work from home) concept resulting from COVID-19
lockdowns accelerated the deployment of many IoT devices and shortened
the learning curves of using such devices. When IoT converges with quantum
computing under “quantum IoT” or QIoT, this will push other technologies
to use quantum computing and add “quantum” or “Q” to their products and
services labels. We will then see more adoption of quantum hardware and
software applications in addition to quantum services like QSaaS, QIaaS, and
QPaaS as parts of quantum cloud and QAI (quantum artificial intelligence) to
mention few examples. [25 , 27]

20
 CHAPTER

Quantum Computing and Blockchain:

Myths and Facts

The biggest danger to Blockchain networks from quantum computing is its

ability to break traditional encryption [30].

21
Quantum Computing and Blockchain: Myths and Facts

Google sent shock waves around the internet when it was claimed they
had built a quantum computer able to solve formerly impossible mathematical
calculations – with some fearing the crypto industry could be at risk. Google
stated that its experiment was the first experimental challenge against the
extended Church–Turing thesis – also known as the computability thesis – which
claims that traditional computers can effectively carry out any “reasonable”
model of computation.

6.1 Difficulties with Quantum Computers [31]

• Interference: During the computation phase of a quantum calculation, the slightest

disturbance in a quantum system (say a stray photon or wave of EM radiation) causes the
quantum computation to collapse, a process known as de-coherence. A quantum computer
must be totally isolated from all external interference during the computation phase.
• Error correction: Given the nature of quantum computing, error correction is ultra-critical –
even a single error in a calculation can cause the validity of the entire computation to collapse.
• Output observance: Closely related to the above two, retrieving output data after a quantum
calculation is complete risks corrupting the data.

6.2 What is Quantum Supremacy?

According to the Financial Times, Google claims to have successfully built

the world’s most powerful quantum computer. What that means, according to
Google’s researchers, is that calculations that normally take more than 10,000
years to perform its computer was able to do in about 200 s, and this potentially
means Blockchain, and the encryption that underpins it, could be broken.

Asymmetric cryptography used in crypto relies on key pairs, namely a

private and public key. Public keys can be calculated from their private
counterpart, but not the other way around. This is due to the impossibility
of certain mathematical problems. Quantum computers are more efficient in
accomplishing this by magnitudes, and if the calculation is done the other way
then the whole scheme breaks [30].

It would appear Google is still some way away from building a quantum
computer that could be a threat to Blockchain cryptography or other encryption.

"Google’s supercomputer currently has 53 qubits," said Dragos Ilie, a

quantum computing and encryption researcher at Imperial College London.

22
 Quantum Computing and Blockchain: Myths and Facts

"In order to have any effect on bitcoin or most other financial systems
it would take at least about 1500 qubits and the system must allow for the
entanglement of all of them," Ilie said.

Meanwhile, scaling quantum computers is "a huge challenge," according to

Ilie [28].

Blockchain networks, including Bitcoin’s architecture, relies on two

algorithms: the elliptic curve digital signature algorithm (ECDSA) for digital
signatures and SHA-256 as a hash function. A quantum computer could use
Shor’s algorithm [8] to get your private information from your public key, but
the most optimistic scientific estimates say that even if this were possible, it
won’t happen during this decade.

“A 160 bit elliptic curve cryptographic key could be broken on a quantum

computer using around 1000 qubits while factoring the security-wise equivalent
1024 bit RSA modulus would require about 2000 qubits”. By comparison,
Google’s measly 53 qubits are still no match for this kind of cryptography,
according to a research paper on the matter published by Cornell University.

But that isn’t to say that there’s no cause for alarm. While the native
encryption algorithms used by Blockchain’s applications are safe for now, the
fact is that the rate of advancement in quantum technology is increasing, and
that could, in time, pose a threat. "We expect their computational power will
continue to grow at a double exponential rate," say Google researchers.

6.3 Quantum Cryptography?

Quantum cryptography uses physics to develop a cryptosystem completely

secure against being compromised without knowledge of the sender or
the receiver of the messages. The word quantum itself refers to the most
fundamental behavior of the smallest particles of matter and energy.

Quantum cryptography is different from traditional cryptographic systems

in that it relies more on physics, rather than mathematics, as a key aspect of its
security model.

Essentially, quantum cryptography is based on the usage of individual

particles/waves of light (photon) and their intrinsic quantum properties to
develop an unbreakable cryptosystem (because it is impossible to measure the
quantum state of any system without disturbing that system).

23
Quantum Computing and Blockchain: Myths and Facts

Quantum cryptography uses photons to transmit a key. Once the key is

transmitted, coding and encoding using the normal secret-key method can take
place. But how does a photon become a key? How do you attach information to
a photon’s spin?

This is where binary code comes into play. Each type of a photon’s spin
represents one piece of information – usually a 1 or a 0, for binary code. This
code uses strings of 1s and 0s to create a coherent message. For example,
11100100110 could correspond to h-e-l-l-o. So a binary code can be assigned
to each photon – for example, a photon that has a vertical spin ( | ) can be
assigned a 1.

“If you build it correctly, no hacker can hack the system. The question is
what it means to build it correctly,” said physicist Renato Renner from the
Institute of Theoretical Physics in Zurich.

Regular, non-quantum encryption can work in a variety of ways but

generally a message is scrambled and can only be unscrambled using a secret
key. The trick is to make sure that whomever you’re trying to hide your
communication from doesn’t get their hands on your secret key. Cracking the
private key in a modern crypto system would generally require figuring out the
factors of a number that is the product of two insanely huge prime numbers.

The numbers are chosen to be so large that, with the given processing power
of computers, it would take longer than the lifetime of the universe for an
algorithm to factor their product.

Encryption techniques have their vulnerabilities. Certain products – called

weak keys – happen to be easier to factor than others. Also, Moore’s Law
continually ups the processing power of our computers. Even more importantly,
mathematicians are constantly developing new algorithms that allow for easier
factorization.

Quantum cryptography avoids all these issues. Here, the key is encrypted
into a series of photons that get passed between two parties trying to share
secret information. The Heisenberg uncertainty principle dictates that an
adversary can’t look at these photons without changing or destroying them.

“In this case, it doesn’t matter what technology the adversary has, they’ll
never be able to break the laws of physics,” said physicist Richard Hughes
of Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico, who works on quantum
cryptography [32, 33].

24
 CHAPTER

Quantum Computing and AI: A Mega-Buzzword

Quantum computers are designed to perform tasks much more accurately

and efficiently than conventional computers, providing developers with a
new tool for specific applications. It is clear in the short-term that quantum
computers will not replace their traditional counterparts; instead, they will
require classical computers to support their specialized abilities, such as system
optimization. [35]

Quantum computing and artificial intelligence are both transformational

technologies and artificial intelligence needs quantum computing to achieve
significant progress. Although artificial intelligence produces functional
applications with classical computers, it is limited by the computational
capabilities of classical computers. Quantum computing can provide a

25
Quantum Computing and AI: A Mega-Buzzword

computation boost to artificial intelligence, enabling it to tackle more complex

problems in many fields in business and science. [37]

7.1 What is Quantum Computing?

Quantum computing is the area of study focused on developing computer

technology based on the principles of quantum theory. The quantum computer,
following the laws of quantum physics, would gain enormous processing power
through the ability to be in multiple states and to perform tasks using all
possible permutations simultaneously.

7.2 Difficulties with Quantum Computers

• Interference: During the computation phase of a quantum calculation, the slightest

disturbance in a quantum system (say a stray photon or wave of EM radiation) causes the
quantum computation to collapse, a process known as de-coherence. A quantum computer
must be totally isolated from all external interference during the computation phase.
• Error correction: Given the nature of quantum computing, error correction is ultra-critical –
even a single error in a calculation can cause the validity of the entire computation to collapse.
• Output observance: Closely related to the above two, retrieving output data after a quantum
calculation is complete risks corrupting the data.

7.3 Applications of Quantum Computing and AI

Keeping in mind that the term “quantum AI” means the use of quantum
computing for computation of machine learning algorithms, which takes
advantage of computational superiority of quantum computing to achieve
results that are not possible to achieve with classical computers, the following
are some of the applications of this super mix of quantum computing and AI
(Figure 7.1) [34, 37]:

7.4 Processing Large Sets of Data

We produce 2.5 exabytes of data every day. That’s equivalent to 250,000

Libraries of Congress or the content of 5 million laptops. Every minute of
every day 3.2 billion global internet users continue to feed the data banks with

26
 Quantum Computing and AI: A Mega-Buzzword

Figure 7.1: Applications of quantum computing and AI.

9722 pins on Pinterest, 347,222 tweets, 4.2 million Facebook likes plus ALL the
other data we create by taking pictures and videos, saving documents, opening
accounts and more. [36]

Quantum computers are designed to manage the huge amount of data,

along with uncovering patterns and spotting anomalies extremely quickly.
With each newly launched iteration of quantum computer design and the new
improvements made on the quantum error-correction code, developers are now
able to better manage the potential of quantum bits. They also optimize the
same for solving all kinds of business problems to make better decisions. [35]

7.5 Solve Complex Problem Faster

Quantum computers can complete calculations within seconds, which would

take today’s computers many years to calculate. With quantum computing,

27
Quantum Computing and AI: A Mega-Buzzword

developers can do multiple calculations with multiple inputs simultaneously.

Quantum computers are critical to process the monumental amount of data that
businesses generate on a daily basis, and the fast calculation can be used to
solve very complex problems, which can be expressed as quantum supremacy;
where the calculations that normally take more than 10,000 years to perform, a
quantum computer can do it 200 s. The key is to translate real-world problems
that companies are facing into quantum language. [35, 39]

7.6 Better Business Insights and Models

With the increasing amount of data generated in industries like pharmaceutical,

finance and life science industries, companies are losing their ties with the
classical computing rope. To have a better data framework, these companies
now require complex models that have the potential processing power to
model the most complex situations. And that’s where quantum computers
play a huge role. Creating better models with quantum technology will lead
to better treatments for diseases in the healthcare sector, like the COVID-
19 research cycle from test, tracing and treating of the virus, can decreased
financial implosion in the banking sector and improve the logistics chain in the
manufacturing industry. [35]

7.7 Integration of Multiple Sets of Data

To manage and integrate multiple numbers of sets of data from multiple sources,
quantum computers are best to help, as they make the process quicker, and
also make the analysis easier. The ability to handle so many stakes has made
quantum computing an suitable choice for solving business problems in a
variety of fields. [35]

7.8 The Future

The quantum computing market will reach $2.2 billion, and the number of
installed quantum computers will reach around 180, in 2026, with about 45
machines produced in that year. These include both machines installed at
the quantum computer companies themselves that are accessed by quantum
services as well as customer premises machines. [38]

28
 Quantum Computing and AI: A Mega-Buzzword

Cloud access revenues will likely dominate as a revenue source for quantum
computing companies in the format of quantum computing as a service (QCaaS)
offering, which will account for 75% of all quantum computing revenues in 2026.
Although, in the long run, quantum computers may be more widely purchased,
today potential end users are more inclined to do quantum computing over
the cloud rather than make technologically risky and expensive investments
in quantum computing equipment. [38]

On a parallel track, quantum software applications, developers’ tools and

the number of quantum engineers and experts will grow as the infrastructure
develops over the next 5 years, which will make it possible for more
organizations to harvest the power of two transformational technologies,
quantum computing and AI, and encourage many universities to add quantum
computing as an essential part of their curriculum.

29
 CHAPTER

Quantum Computing Trends

Quantum computing is the area of study focused on developing computer

technology based on the principles of quantum theory. Tens of billions of public
and private capitals are being invested in quantum technologies. Countries
across the world have realized that quantum technologies can be a major
disruptor of existing businesses, and they collectively invested $24 billion in
in quantum research and applications in 2021 [40].

31
Quantum Computing Trends

Figure 8.1: Future of computing.

8.1 A Comparison of Classical and Quantum Computing

Classical computing relies, at its ultimate level, on principles expressed by

Boolean algebra (Figure 8.1). Data must be processed in an exclusive binary
state at any point in time or what we call bits. While the time that each transistor
or capacitor need be either in 0 or 1 before switching states is now measurable
in billionths of a second, there is still a limit as to how quickly these devices can
be made to switch state.

As we progress to smaller and faster circuits, we begin to reach the physical

limits of materials and the threshold for classical laws of physics to apply.
Beyond this, the quantum world takes over; in a quantum computer, a number of
elemental particles such as electrons or photons can be used with either their
charge or polarization acting as a representation of 0 and/or 1. Each of these
particles is known as a quantum bit, or qubit, the nature and behavior of these
particles form the basis of quantum computing [2]. Classical computers use
transistors as the physical building blocks of logic, while quantum computers
may use trapped ions, superconducting loops, quantum dots or vacancies in a
diamond [40].

8.2 Physical vs. Logical Qubits

When discussing quantum computers with error correction, we talk about

physical and logical qubits. Physical qubits are the physical qubits in a quantum
computer, whereas logical qubits are groups of physical qubits we use as a single
qubit in our computation to fight noise and improve error correction.

32
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of Rivaux, when he states that King David found at his accession
only three or four bishops, and founded or restored so many as to
leave nine at his death. We find accordingly Samson, bishop of
Brechin, witnessing the charter granted by King David to the Church
of Deer in the last year of his reign; and again, along with Laurence,
bishop of Dunblane, a charter granted by Malcolm IV. to the monks
of Dunfermline between 1160 and 1162;[753] but, although Laurence
is first mentioned in the bull of Pope Adrian in 1155, his bishopric is
included in the nine left by King David at his death, and must have
been founded shortly before and probably at the same time as that
of Brechin. The reorganisation of the church under a diocesan
episcopacy was thus completed during the lifetime of King David;
and during the subsequent reigns we find the occasional appearance
of a representative body of seven bishops, in obvious connection
with that other body termed the seven earls of Scotland.[754] The
seven bishops of Scotland appear to have consisted of the bishops of
St. Andrews and Glasgow, and the five bishops added by King David
himself during his reign, omitting the bishops of Dunkeld and Moray,
whose bishoprics had been restored in the previous reign of
Alexander the First.
Bishoprics of The two bishoprics of Brechin and Dunblane
Brechin and thus founded towards the end of King David’s
Dunblane formed reign were probably formed from the remains of
from old see of
Abernethy. the old Pictish bishopric of Abernethy, in so far as
the churches which had been subject to it had
not been absorbed by the growing bishopric of St. Andrews which
immediately succeeded it. We may infer this from the facts that,
though Abernethy was within the limits of the diocese of St. Andrews
and surrounded on all sides by her churches, it belonged
ecclesiastically to the diocese of Dunblane; that Abernethy was
dedicated to St. Bridget, and that we find a Panbride in the diocese
of Brechin and a Kilbride in that of Dunblane, indicating that the
veneration of the patroness of Abernethy had extended to other
churches included in these dioceses. Abernethy, too, was the last of
the bishoprics which existed while the kingdom ruled over by the
Scottish dynasty was still called the Kingdom of the Picts, while that
of St. Andrews was more peculiarly associated with the Scots; and it
was in Stratherne and in the northern part of Angus and in the
Mearns that the Pictish population lingered longest distinct from that
of the Scots, while the latter had their main seat in the central
region consisting of the rest of Angus, Gowrey, Fife and Fothrif. The
two bishoprics of Dunblane and Brechin on the one hand, and that
of St. Andrews on the other, to some extent represented what had at
one time been the main territory occupied by the two populations.
Abernethy has, by popular tradition, always been peculiarly
associated with the Pictish population, and its history, so far as it can
be ascertained, shows its connection with the church among the
southern Picts from the very earliest period. The legend of its first
foundation connects it with the church of St. Ninian, when a church
is said to have been established there by King Nectan, who had,
while in exile, visited Kildare in the fifth century, and who dedicated
his church to St. Brigid, or St. Bride. When the Columban church
entered the province of the southern Picts in the end of the sixth
century, it was refounded by King Garnard for Columban monks,
while the dedication to St. Bride was preserved; but, like Kildare
itself, it now contained an establishment of monks. What its fate was
during the interval between the expulsion of the Columban monks in
the beginning of the eighth century and their reintroduction under
Kenneth mac Alpin—whether the monks of Abernethy were expelled
and secular clergy introduced, or whether they conformed to the
decree of the Pictish king and were allowed to remain—we do not
know; but during the reign of the first king of the Scottish dynasty,
when the abbot of Dunkeld became the first bishop of his kingdom,
Abernethy appears to have been visited and reorganised by the
abbot of the mother church of Kildare, and to this period the
erection of its round tower can be most probably assigned. On the
death of the bishop-abbot of Dunkeld, it became the seat of the
bishop of the kingdom, and three elections of these bishops had
taken place there when it was in its turn superseded by St. Andrews.
Suppression of In the reign of Edgar the Keledei of Abernethy
Keledei of first appear on record, but whether they were
Abernethy. introduced, as at Lochleven in the eighth century,
or, as at St. Andrews, in the tenth, we have no means of
ascertaining; but we are told by Bower that this community of
Keledei, whom he terms the prior and canons, possessed the lands
and tithes which formerly belonged to St. Bridget and her times, and
that, as usual with the Keledei, their church had become dedicated
to St. Mary.[755] By King William the church of Abernethy was granted
to Arbroath; and we now find the one half of the church and its
dependencies in the possession of a hereditary lay abbot, while the
other half belonged to the Keledei, for in that reign—some time
between 1189 and 1198—Laurence, son of Orm de Abernethy,
conveys to the church and monks of Arbroath his whole right ‘in the
advowson of the church of Abernethy, with its pertinents, that is, the
chapel of Dron, the chapel of Dunbulcc, with the chapel of Erolyn
and the lands of Belache and Petenlouer, and with the half of all the
tithes which belonged to him and his heirs, the other half belonging
to the Keledei, and with all the tithes of the territory of Abernethy
and its proper rights, with the exception of those tithes which are
appropriated to the churches of Flisk and Cultram and the tithes
from his lordship of Abernythy, which the Keledei of Abernethy have
and which properly belong to him, viz., those of Mukedrum and
Kerpul and Balehyrewelle and Ballecolly and Invernythy on the east
side of the river,’ that is, the land extending along the south shore of
the Firth of Tay from the river Nethy to the east boundary by
Mugdrum. This very instructive grant thus presents to us a picture of
Abernethy in which the ancient abbacy is now represented by a
family of lay abbots, while the possessions of the old nunnery are
held by Keledei, and the lay lord of the territory conveys his abbatial
rights to Arbroath, retaining the land, and becomes to all intents and
purposes a secular baron of Abernethy, from whom sprang the
baronial house of Abernethy. In the succeeding century we find a
dispute between the abbot and monks of Arbroath and the prior and
Keledei of Abernethy regarding the tithes of certain lands which the
abbot declared belonged to their parish church of Abernethy; but it
was decided by the bishop of Dunblane against the Keledei.[756]
These Keledei were eventually disposed of in the same manner as
the others had been, and were in 1272 converted into a community
of canons-regular of St. Augustine. We have no record of the
process; but there is no reason to doubt the fact as stated by Bower,
[757]
and the name of Keledei no longer occurs in connection with
Abernethy.
Failure of the The church of Brechin, which became the seat
Celtic Church of of the bishopric founded by King David, has no
Brechin. claim to represent an old Columban monastery;
for its origin as a church is clearly recorded in the Pictish Chronicle,
which tells us that King Kenneth, son of Malcolm, who reigned from
971 to 995, immolated the great town of Brechin to the Lord; and its
dedication likewise indicates a later foundation, for it was dedicated
to the Holy Trinity. Like the other churches which belong to the
period after the establishment of a Scottish dynasty on the throne in
the person of Kenneth mac Alpin, it emanated from the Irish Church,
and was assimilated in its character to the Irish monasteries; and to
this we may, no doubt, attribute the well-known round tower at
Brechin. We hear nothing more of this church till the reign of David
the First; but one of the witnesses to the charter granted by him, in
the eighth year of his reign, to the church at Deer, is ‘Leot, abbot of
Brechin.’ The later charter granted by the same king to the church of
Deer is, as we have seen, witnessed by Samson, bishop of Brechin;
and that, in this case as well as that of Dunkeld, the abbot had
become the bishop is probable, for a charter granted by his
successor Turpin, bishop of Brechin, is witnessed by ‘Dovenaldus,
abbot of Brechin;’ and the same Dovenaldus, abbot of Brechin,
grants a charter to the monastery of Arbroath, of the lands of
Ballegillegrand for the health of the souls, among others, of his
‘father Samson,’ thus showing that though Samson had become
bishop, the abbacy passed to his son. The charter of Bishop Turpin,
which is witnessed by this Dovenaldus, contains among the
witnesses ‘Bricius, prior of the Keledei of Brechin,’ who ranks
immediately after the bishop of St. Andrews; and it is apparent that
the abbacy had now become secularised, for Dovenaldus does not
appear among the clerical witnesses, but follows Gilbride, earl of
Angus. Brechin thus presents at this time the same features as
Abernethy, and shows us the abbacy in the possession of a lay abbot
and a community of Keledei under a prior. That the abbacy now
passed into the possession of a family of hereditary lay abbots, who,
as in other cases, bore the name of Abbe, appears from the
chartulary of Arbroath, where we find a grant to the monastery by
‘Johannes Abbe, son of Malisius,’ which is witnessed by Morgund and
John, his sons, and Malcolm his brother. He himself too witnesses a
charter as ‘Johannes, abbot of Brechin,’ and this grant is confirmed
by ‘Morgundus, son of Johannes Abbe.’ The community of Keledei
with their prior appear as in other cases to have formed the chapter
of the diocese, till they were gradually superseded by a regular
cathedral chapter. In the charter by Abbot Dovenaldus we find the
prior, who in the earlier charters ranked after the bishop, giving
place to the archdeacon of Brechin, while the appearance of
‘Andreas, parson of Brechin,’ indicates that they had now lost their
parochial functions. They then appear conjoined with other clergy in
forming the chapter in a charter granted by the prior and Keledei
and the other clerics of the chapter of the church of Brechin to the
monks of Arbroath, and a dean appears among the witnesses. In a
charter granted by the bishop of Brechin, the archdeacon, the
chaplain of Brechin, and two other chaplains and the dean take
precedence of the prior of the Keledei. After the year 1218 we find
the Keledei distinguished from the chapter; and in 1248 they have
entirely disappeared, and we hear only of the dean and chapter of
Brechin.[758]
Failure of the The other bishopric, however, which had been
Celtic Church in formed by King David from the old Pictish
the bishopric of bishopric of Abernethy, and to which that church
Dunblane.
was more immediately attached—the bishopric of
Dunblane—was undoubtedly connected with an old Columban
foundation. The church of Dunblane dates back to the seventh
century, and seems to have been an offshoot of the church of
Kingarth in Bute, for its founder was St. Blane. He was of the race of
the Irish Picts, and nephew of that Bishop Cathan who founded
Kingarth; and was himself bishop of that church, and his mother was
a daughter of King Aidan of Dalriada.[759] The church of Dunblane
was situated in the vale of the river Allan, not far from its junction
with the Forth, and is mentioned in the Pictish Chronicle under the
reign of Kenneth mac Alpin, when it was burnt by the neighbouring
Britons of Strathclyde. We hear no more of this church till the
foundation of the bishopric by King David. The catalogue of religious
houses places Keledei as the religious community of the church, but
the only Keledei we have any record of appear as located at Muthill,
situated farther north, and not far from the river Earn; while a later
record shows us that the Columban monastery, like many others,
had fallen into lay hands, and the clerical element then was limited
to a single cleric, who performed the service. In a document
containing the judgment of the pope’s delegates in a question
between the bishop of Dunblane and the earl of Menteith, in the
year 1238, we read that the bishop had gone in person to Rome and
represented to the pope ‘that the church of Dunblane had formerly
been vacant for a hundred years and more, and almost all its
possessions had been seized by secular persons; and, although in
process of time several bishops had been appointed to her, yet by
their weakness and indifference the possessions thus appropriated
had not only not been recovered, but even what remained to them
had been almost entirely alienated; in consequence of which no one
could be induced to take upon himself the burden of the episcopate,
and the church had thus remained without a chief pastor for nearly
ten years; that the present bishop, when appointed, had found the
church so desolate that he had not a cathedral church wherein to
place his head; that there was no collegiate establishment; and that
in this unroofed church the divine offices were celebrated by a
certain rural chaplain, while the bishop’s revenues were so slender
that they scarce afforded fitting maintenance for half the year.’[760]
This picture of clerical desolation does not differ from what we have
found in other churches the possessions of which had fallen into the
hands of lay families, and it is quite inconsistent with the statement
that there was a body of Keledei in the church of Dunblane. The
Keledei referred to must have been those at Muthill, which at this
time was one of the principal seats of the earls of Stratherne. We
unfortunately know little of the early history of this church. It adjoins
the old parish of Strageath, which has been united to it from beyond
the memory of man; and, as we have seen, after the expulsion of
the Columban monks in the beginning of the eighth century, St.
Fergus or Fergusanius, a bishop of the Roman party who came from
Ireland, is said to have founded three churches in the confines of
Strageath. The church of Strageath was dedicated to St. Patrick, and
the other two churches were probably those of Blackford, also
dedicated to St. Patrick, and of Muthill, within the bounds of which
parish were St. Patrick’s well and a chapel dedicated to him; but
whether we are to place the introduction of the Keledei at this period
or in the reign of Constantine, the son of Kenneth mac Alpin, when
the Keledei were re-established under the canonical rule in Scotland,
and when St. Cadroë was reviving religion in Stratherne under the
auspices of his uncle St. Bean of Foulis and Kinkell, neighbouring
parishes, there is nothing now to show. We find the Keledei with
their prior at Muthill from 1178 to 1214,[761] when they disappear
from the records, and Muthill becomes the seat of the dean of
Dunblane, who had already taken precedence of the prior of the
Keledei. It is probable that under the growing importance of
Dunblane as a cathedral establishment, the possessions of the
Keledei had fallen into secular hands. In the meantime the earls of
Stratherne had introduced the canons-regular from Scone into the
diocese by the foundation of the priory of Inchaffray, separated from
the parishes of Muthill and Strageath only by the river Earn. This
took place some time before the year 1198. The founders were Earl
Gilbert and his countess, and it was dedicated to St. Mary and St.
John the apostle, to whom they give ‘Incheaffren, which is called in
Latin Insula Missarum,’ placing it under the care of Malise, the
parson and hermit, for canons under the rule of St. Augustine, and
bestowing upon it the ancient Columban foundations of St. Cattan of
Aberruthven and St. Ethernan of Madderdy, and the more modern
churches of St. Patrick of Strageath, St. Makessog of Auchterarder
and St. Bean of Kinkell.[762] Bower, whose authority in matters of
church history at this period must not be underrated, tells us that,
when Earl Gilbert founded this monastery, he divided his earldom
into three equal portions, one of which he gave to the church and
bishop of Dunblane, another to the canons of Inchaffray, and the
third he reserved for himself and his heirs;[763] but this is inconsistent
with the account which the bishop of Dunblane gives of the state of
the church five years after the death of that earl, and probably its
only foundation was the arrangement proposed by the adjudicators,
by which a fourth of the tithes of all the parish churches in the
diocese was to be assigned to the bishop, in order that he might,
after receiving a sufficient part for his own maintenance, appropriate
the rest to the establishment of a dean and chapter; otherwise the
episcopal see was to be transferred to the monastery of Inchaffray,
whose canons were to form the chapter, and the bishop was to
receive the fourth part of the tithes of those churches which had
been appropriated by secular persons. This alternative plan did not
take effect; and what Bower reports of the lands of the earldom may
have been true in so far as regards the tithes of the secularised
churches.
Failure of the The bishopric of Dunkeld prior to the thirteenth
Celtic Church in century was not confined to the district of Atholl
the bishopric of alone, with the isolated churches which belonged
Dunkeld.
to it within the limits of other dioceses, but
extended as far as the Western Sea, and included the districts
stretching along its shores, from the Firth of Clyde to Lochbroom,
and forming the great province of Arregaidhel, or Argyll. It
possessed this extensive jurisdiction as representing the primatial
supremacy of Iona over the Columban churches, though the
monastery of Iona itself, being within the bounds of the Norwegian
kingdom of the Isles, came to belong to the metropolitan diocese of
Trontheim. It is within the bounds of this diocese that, if popular
notions regarding the Culdees are correct, we ought to find the most
abundant traces of them; but, except in the church of Iona itself,
they have left no record of their presence, and we do not find their
name connected with any of the old Columban foundations. The
great abbacy of Dull, founded in the seventh century by St.
Adamnan, had, with its extensive territory, long been in lay hands.
The church of Dull had been granted to the priory of St. Andrews by
Malcolm, earl of Atholl, in the reign of King William the Lion, ‘after
the decease of his own cleric,’ and the grant was confirmed by his
son Henry and by the bishop and chapter of Dunkeld; and, in a
memorandum of the proceedings of a court held at Dull by the prior
in 1264, we find mention of a vicar of Dull and of a cleric of Dull.
The names of William of Chester and John of Carham, canons,
indicate a foreign infusion, and the name of a solitary clerauch
witnesses for the Celtic element, but there is no appearance of any
Keledei.[764] Another great Columban abbacy—that founded by St.
Fillan in the same century in the vale of Glendochart—appears also
to have passed into the hands of a lay abbot. In one of the laws of
King William, ‘called Claremathane,’ we find the abbot of Glendochart
ranking as a great lord with the earls of Atholl and Menteith, and
sharing with the former the jurisdiction over the dwellers of the
adjacent part of Argyll.[765] And, in 1296, among the barons holding
of the crown who do homage to Edward the First are Malcolm of
Glendochart and Patrick of Glendochart,[766] of the county of Perth,
who are obviously simple laymen taking their name from the abbacy.
But while the lands of the monastery thus passed into the
possession of a secular family, the monastery seems, like many
others, to have had connected with it a Deoradh, or anchorite, to
whose descendants as coärb, or heir, of St. Fillan, the ecclesiastic
jurisdiction, with the custody of his pastoral staff, called the
Coygerach, seems to have fallen, as we find from an inquest held at
Kandrochid, or Killin, on the 22d April 1428, that ‘the office of
bearing the said relique belonged hereditarily to the progenitor of
Finlay Jore, who appeared before the jury as the successor of Saint
Felan with that office, and that these privileges had been preserved
in the time of King Robert Bruce, and in the time of the subsequent
kings to the present day,’ in virtue of which the family possessed a
certain jurisdiction which bears an obvious relation to that possessed
in the reign of King William by the abbot of Glendochart; and in the
year 1487 there is a letter by King James, in which the king states
that his ‘servitour Malice Doïre and his forebearis has had ane relik
of Sanct Fulane, called the quegrith, in keping of us and of our
progenitors’ since the time of ‘King Robert the Bruys and of before,
and made nane obedience nor answer to na persone spirituale nor
temporale in ony thing concerning the said haly relik,’ and charging
all and sundry to ‘mak him nane impediment, letting, or
distroublance in the passing with the said relik throch the contre as
he and his forebearis wes wount to do.’[767]
Formation of the The districts, belonging to the bishopric of
diocese of Argyll Dunkeld, which lay to the west of the great range
or Lismore. of Drumalban were, about the year 1200,
separated from it and formed into a new bishopric termed first that
of Argyll and afterwards that of Lismore. Canon Mylne of Dunkeld
tells us, in his Lives of the Bishops,[768] that John, called the Scot, but
an Englishman by birth, who had been archdeacon of St. Andrews,
was elected bishop in the year 1167, and that he divided the diocese
of Dunkeld, and obtained letters from the pope constituting his
chaplain Eraldus bishop of Argyll. This name is no doubt the
Norwegian Harald, which had become naturalised among the Gael in
the form of Arailt or Erailt. The seat of the bishopric appears to have
been fixed first in the district of Mucarn, or Muckairn, on the south
side of Loch Etive, which belonged in property to the bishop of
Dunkeld, and here his church bore the name of Killespeckerrill, or
the church of bishop Erailt. The catalogue of religious houses states
the community of the bishopric of ‘Argiul’ to have been Keledei, but
we find no trace of this name in connection with any church in the
diocese. It is possible, however, that some of the Keledei from
Dunkeld may have accompanied the new bishop, and been
established here. In 1230 or 1231 the priory of Ardchattan was
founded, on the opposite shore, for monks of the order of Vallis
Caulium by Dunkan mak Dougall, the head of the great family of
lords of Lorn, and like most of these foundations, had many of the
older churches bestowed upon it. The dependencies upon this priory
were the churches of Balivedan, within which parish it was situated,
and which was dedicated to St. Modan; of Kilninvir in Lorn,
Kilbrandan in Seil, Kirkapol in Tiree, Kilmanivaig in Lochaber, and
Kilmarow in Kintyre.[769] A few years later it was resolved to remove
the seat of the bishopric, probably for greater security, to the island
of Lismore. In this island a Columban monastery had been founded
by St. Lughadh, or Moluoc, but like many others, it had become
secularised, and the possessions of the monastery, including the
territory on the mainland which had formed part of the Abthania, or
abbey lands—a name corrupted into Appin—had now passed into
the hands of the great lords of Lorn. Like the abbacy of Glendochart,
the only vestige of its former character was the existence of a family
of hereditary custodiers of the old bishop’s crozier, called bachuill
more; and we find ‘in 1544 Archibald Campbell, fiar of the lands of
Argyll, Campbell and Lorn, in honour of the blessed Virgin, and of his
patron saint Moloc, mortifying to John mac Molmore vic Kevir and his
heirs-male half the lands of Peynabachalla and Peynchallen,
extending to a half-merk land in the island of Lismore, with the
keeping of the great Staff of St. Moloc, as freely as his father,
grandfather, great-grandfather and other predecessors held the
same.’[770] In order to carry this resolution into effect, the bishop of
the Isles, within whose diocese the island of Lismore was, prays the
pope to relieve him from the care of this episcopal church, which, he
says, from the perverseness of the times, had been brought into a
state of extreme destitution; and the pope addresses a mandate to
the bishop of Moray, in the year 1236, directing him to dissever the
church of Lismore from the bishopric of the Isles, in order that
another bishop might be placed there.[771] Lismore now became the
seat of the bishop, and the designation became changed from that
of Argyll to that of Lismore. On the death of Bishop William, who
was drowned in the year 1241, the bishopric remained vacant for
some years, and we find Pope Innocent the Fourth directing the
bishops of Glasgow and Dunblane in 1249 to take steps for
supplying the church of Argyll, which had been deprived of a chief
pastor for more than seven years, with a canonically elected bishop;
and in another mandate he directs the same bishops, as the seat of
the bishopric was now situated in a certain island in the sea, and
almost inaccessible from the stormy channel, across which the
people could not pass without danger, to transfer it to a more
convenient site.[772] The first mandate was carried into effect by the
election, in 1250, of Bishop Alan, but no attempt was made to carry
out the second; and the position of the bishop in Lismore was
improved by grants of land and the institution of a cathedral chapter,
for we find in 1249 Alexander the Second granted to the episcopal
see of Argyll, for the episcopal table, the parish church of St. Brigid
the Virgin in Lorn, that is, Kilbride; and two years after, in 1251,
Eugenius the knight, the son of Duncan of Erregeithill, or Argyll,
grants to William, bishop of Argyll, fourteen penny lands in Lismore,
free of all secular exactions; and this charter is witnessed by
Gillemeluoc, dean of Lismore, and the whole chapter.[773]
Condition of Of the Columban foundations in this great
Columban Church western district, we find traces of only two which
of Kilmun. throw light upon the condition of the church. In
the southern division of the district, which was usually termed ‘Argyll
pertaining to Scotia,’[774] on the north shore of the Holy Loch, was
the church of Kilmun, which had been founded by St. Fintan Munnu
of Teach Munnu in Ireland, whom St. Adamnan notices as having
wished to become a monk under St. Columba, but having arrived in
Iona only after his death.[775] We find this church in lay hands in the
thirteenth century, as, between 1230 and 1246, Duncan, son of
Fercher, and his nephew Lauman, son of Malcolm, grant to the
monks of Paisley lands which they and their ancestors had at
Kilmun, with the whole right of patronage in the church of Kilmun;
and in 1294 a charter to the monks of Paisley is witnessed by
Humfred of Kylmon;[776] and here, too, we have traces of certain
lands on the west side of Loch Long being held with the hereditary
custody of the staff of St. Mund, to which the name of ‘Deowray’
was attached.[777]
Condition of the We have also traces of the condition to which a
Columban Church much more important monastery in the northern
of Applecross. part of the district had been brought. This was
the monastery of Apurcrosan, now Applecross, founded by St.
Maelrubha, in the year 673, in that part of the province which was
termed Ergadia Borealis, or North Argyll. Of the abbots of this
monastery the Irish Annals, as we have seen, notice three—
Maelrubha, who died in 822; Failbe, son of Guaire, termed his heir,
or coärb, who was drowned with twenty-two of his crew, who were
probably brethren of the monastery, on his passage to Ireland in
736; and Macoigi of Apuorchrosan, who became abbot of the
monastery of Bangor in Ireland, the monastery from which
Maelrubha had proceeded on his mission to Britain, and died there in
801. The possessions of this monastery were very extensive, and
comprehended the entire district extending along the shores of the
Western Sea from Loch Carron on the south to Loch Broom on the
north. They appear to have fallen into the hands of a family of
hereditary sagarts or priests, who, according to tradition, bore the
name of O’Beollan. The name of one of these priests is connected
with an upright slab in the churchyard, bearing the figure of a
collared cross, which is known as the stone of Ruairidh mor mac
Caoigan, who was said to have been proprietor of Applecross, and to
have been slain by the Danes. His name undoubtedly connects him
with abbot Macoigi; but we find ourselves on surer ground in the
reign of Alexander the Second, when Ferchar, called Macintsagart,
that is, the son of the sagart, or priest, gave such powerful support
to the king in suppressing insurrections both in the north and in
Galloway, that he was created earl of Ross as his reward. His
position as hereditary lord of the extensive possessions of the
monastery made him, in fact, a very powerful chief; and from him
the later earls of Ross were descended. From him, too, descended,
according to Mac Vurich, ‘Gillapatrick the Red, the son of Ruairidh,
the son of the green abbot,’ who is known in tradition as the ‘red
priest,’ and whose daughter brought the possessions of the
monastery into the family of the Macdonalds, Lords of the Isles.
Besides other churches dedicated to St. Maelrubha, there was one in
the parish of Muckairn, on a small island in a lake called Kilvarie
Loch; and here was the usual relic of the crozier kept by the
possessors of a small portion of land; for, in 1518, Sir John Campbell
of Calder receives the services of some of the small clans, ‘who were
sworn upon the mess buik and the relic callit the Arwachyll, at the isl
of Kilmolrue;’ and there is a township near it called Ballindore, that
is, Baile-an-deoradh, the town of the Deoradh, or Dewar, as he came
to be called.[778]
State of the Celtic It only remains for us now to terminate this
monastery of inquiry into the decadence of the old Celtic
Iona. Church with the island of Iona, whence it
originally took its rise; and here too we shall find that the efforts
made to preserve the old Celtic establishment failed, and that it had
to give way before the invasion of one of the religious orders of the
Roman Church. The last of the old abbots, of whom we have any
notice, died in the last year of the eleventh century; and for upwards
of fifty years there is an unbroken silence regarding Iona. During this
period the whole of the Western Islands were under the rule of the
Norwegian kings of the Isles, and the connection between the
church in the Isles and the mainland of Scotland, on the one side,
and Ireland, on the other, must have been to a great extent cut off.
The abbots of the Irish monastery of Kells were at this time the
coärbs of Columcille there; but they do not appear to have had
anything to do with Iona, and there is no trace of the bishop of
Dunkeld having at this time exercised any jurisdiction over the
island. The Norwegian kings of the Isles, though professing
Christianity, showed no desire to foster the church; and the whole
establishment in Iona was probably in a state of decay. The
Norwegian king of the Isles was at this time Godred, who succeeded
his father, Olaf Bitling, in the year 1154; but his rule becoming too
tyrannical and oppressive to be borne, a powerful Norwegian chief,
Thorfinn, went to Somerled, the Celtic kinglet of Argyll, who had
already almost entirely expelled the Norwegians from that mainland
district, and requested to have his son Dubgal, whose mother was
the daughter of Olaf Bitling, that he might set him on the throne of
the Isles. To this Somerled gladly consented, and Thorfinn took the
young prince, and, conducting him through all the Isles, forced the
chiefs to acknowledge him for their king. This led to a war between
Godred and Somerled, and in 1156 a naval battle was fought
between them during the night of the Epiphany, with great slaughter
on both sides. Next morning, however, at daybreak, they came to a
compromise, and divided between them the sovereignty of the Isles,
‘so that,’ says the Chronicle, ‘from that period they have formed two
distinct kingdoms to the present day.’[779] The part assigned to
Somerled consisted of the islands which lay to the south of the point
of Ardnamurchan; and among them was the island of Iona.
Somerled appears, some years after, to have endeavoured to restore
the abbacy of Iona to its original state by placing it under the care of
the abbot of Derry, Flaithbertach O’Brolchan, who had been raised in
1158 to the dignity of a bishop, and had the coärbship of Columcille
conferred upon him; and we find in 1164 that the chiefs of the
family of Iona went to him and invited him to accept the abbacy of
Iona by the advice of Somerled and the men of Argyll and the Isles,
but the abbot of Armagh, the king of Ireland and the chiefs of Cinel
Eoghan prevented it. The chiefs of the family of Iona, who thus
represented the community at this time, were the Sacart mor, or
great priest, the Ferleighinn, or lector, the Disertach, or head of the
Disert for the reception of pilgrims, and the head of the Cele De or
Culdees;[780] and the ground of the opposition of the civil and
ecclesiastical heads of the state in Ireland is not told us. Somerled
was slain two years afterwards, and, in the division of his extensive
territories among his sons, the Isles and Kintyre fell to the share of
his second son Reginald or Ranald. Macvurich, the sennachy of the
clan, says of him that he was ‘the most distinguished of the Galls
(that is, the Norwegians) and of the Gaels for prosperity, sway of
generosity, and feats of arms;’ and undoubtedly the church
benefited largely by these qualities. He appears to have rebuilt the
ruined monastery of Iona on a larger scale. The Catalogue of
religious houses places Keledei in the ‘abbatia in insula,’ or abbacy of
Iona, at this time; and apparently it was at this time under the
charge of Donald O’Brolchan, whose name is inscribed on one of the
pillars of the abbey church as having built it, and whose death as
prior is recorded in the year 1202 as having taken place on the 26th
of April;[781] but the annalist who records it does not tell us of what
place he was prior. His name, however, connects him with Derry;
and, though the heads of the Irish Church and State may have
objected to the bishop of Derry being also abbot of Iona, they may
have consented to Iona being placed under the prior.
A.D. 1203. The Lord of the Isles seems, however, to have
Foundation of resolved to adopt the policy of the Scottish kings,
Benedictine and to introduce into his territories the religious
abbey and
nunnery, and order of the Roman Church; and Macvurich tells
disappearance of us that ‘three monasteries were formed by him—
a monastery of black monks in I, or Iona, in
Celtic honour of God and Saint Columchille; a
community. monastery of black nuns in the same place; and
a monastery of grey friars at Sagadul or Saddle, in Kintyre.’ We learn
from other sources that Reginald did found a religious house at
Saddle for Cistercian, or white, monks;[782] and he appears to have
established the Benedictines, or black monks, in Iona in the year
1203, after the death of the prior Donald O’Brolchan, and to have
founded in connection with it a nunnery for Benedictine, or black,
nuns, of which Beatrice or Bethok, the sister of Reginald, was the
first prioress. It is of this Benedictine monastery and nunnery that
the present ruins are the remains; and they were formerly
connected by a causeway which extended in a straight line from the
nunnery to the monastery. On the west side of it, next the nunnery,
was the church called Teampul Ronain, which became the parish
church; and on both sides of the causeway were the houses which
formed the town traditionally called Baile Mor, in the middle of which
stood the cross called Maclean’s Cross, and between it and the
abbey was, on the west side of the causeway, Relic Odhrain, with its
chapel termed Teampul Odhrain. The deed of confirmation of the
Benedictine monastery still exists in the Vatican. It is dated on the
9th December 1203, and is addressed to Celestinus, abbot of St.
Columba, of the island of Hy, and his brethren professing a religious
life; and the pope takes the monastery of St. Columba under the
protection of St. Peter and the Pope, in order that the monastic
order which has been instituted in that place according to the rule of
St. Benedict may be preserved inviolate in all time to come; and he
confirms to them the place itself in which the said monastery is
situated, with its pertinents, consisting of churches, islands and
lands in the Western Isles.[783] King William at the same time grants
to the abbey of Holyrood four churches in Galloway which had
belonged to the abbacy of Hy Columcille.[784] These churches are not
included in the pope’s confirmation of the possessions of the new
monastery, and must have belonged to the prior abbacy. This
Benedictine monastery was no sooner established than its abbot,
Celestine, appears to have attempted to thrust out the prior Celtic
community and place them in a separate building nearer the town;
for we are told in the Ulster Annals that in 1203 ‘a monastery was
erected by Cellach’—no doubt the Celestinus of the Benedictine
monastery—‘in the middle of the Cro of Iona (Croi Ia), without any
legal right, and in despite of the family of Iona, so that he did
considerable damage to the town (Baile). A hosting by the clergy of
the north (of Ireland), viz., by Florence O’Carolan, the bishop of
Tyrone, Maelisa O’Deery, bishop of Tyrconnell, and abbot of the
abbey church of Saints Paul and Peter at Armagh, and by Aulay
O’Ferghail, abbot of Derry, with a great number of the family of
Derry and of the northern clergy beside; and, in obedience to the
law of the church, they pulled down the monastery.’[785] Although the
right of the old Celtic community to remain in the monastery which
had been rebuilt by Reginald was thus vindicated by the assistance
of their Irish brethren, we hear no more of the Keledei at Iona. They
probably adopted the Benedictine rule and became amalgamated
with the monks; while the functionary formerly known as the Head
of the Culdees was represented by the prior of Iona, whom we
afterwards find in the monastery.
Remains of the And thus the old Celtic Church came to an end,
old Celtic Church. leaving no vestiges behind it, save here and there
the roofless walls of what had once been a church, and the
numerous old burying-grounds to the use of which the people still
cling with tenacity, and where occasionally an ancient Celtic cross
tells of its former state. All else has disappeared; and the only
records we have of their history are the names of the saints by
whom they were founded preserved in old calendars, the fountains
near the old churches bearing their name, the village fairs of
immemorial antiquity held on their day, and here and there a few lay
families holding a small portion of land, as hereditary custodiers of
the pastoral staff or other relic of the reputed founder of the church,
with some small remains of its jurisdiction.
 Map illustrating
STATE of CHURCH
IN REIGN OF DAVID I.

J. Bartholomew, Edinr.
 694. National MSS., part i. p. 4. This is the charter which has
formed the subject of so much controversy, in which Duncan calls
himself ‘constans hereditarie Rex Scotiæ,’ but the genuineness of
which is now admitted.

695. See Theiner, Monumenta Historica, p. 9.

696. National MSS., part i. p. 5.

697. National MSS., part i. p. 8.

698. Mater ecclesia de Hedenham.—Ib. p. 15.

699. They are first mentioned by name when they confirm the
charter of erection of Scone in 1115; but Eadmar mentions in his
History that, when Turgot was elected, the bishop of Durham
proposed that he should consecrate him ‘associatis sibi episcopis
Scotiæ et Orcadarum insularum.’ These ‘episcopi Scotiæ’ can only
have been these two bishops, who must have been already
appointed.—Haddan and Stubbs’ Councils, vol. ii. p. 171.

700. Brev. Aberd, Pars Æstiv. f. cxlviii.

701. Regist. Ep. Morav., p. 40.

702. Vit. Dunk. Ec. Ep. pp. 4, 5.

703. Lib. Insulæ Missarum, 15, 26, 71, 73, 76.

704. Regist. de Dunf., pp, 6, 20, 29, 41, 47.

705. Book of Deer, p. 93. Mr. Whitley Stokes translates

conanascad ‘with the gift of them,’ but nascad is the modern
nasgadh, an obligation, from nasgain, to bind or tie, and in his Irish
glosses he so renders it (817).

706. In diebus illis totum jus Keledeorum per totum regnum

Scotiæ transivit in episcopatum Sancti Andreæ.—Quoted by Dr.
Reeves, British Culdees, p. 36; and Haddan and Stubbs’ Councils, p.
178.

707. Usque ad extremos Scotiæ fines.—Haddan and Stubbs’

Councils, vol. ii. p. 159.

708. See Haddan and Stubbs’ Councils, vol. ii. pp. 189-208, for the
account of these disputes.

709. Lib. Ec. de Scon., p. 1.

710. Ib. p. 3; Fordun, Chron. B. v. c. 28.

711. Lib. Ec. de Scon., p. 4.

712. Regist. Ep. Glasg., Nos. 1 and 28.

713. Haddan and Stubbs’ Councils, vol. ii. pp. 24, 25.

714. Pinkerton, Vit. Sanct., p. 442.

715. This document, so far as it relates to Scotland, is printed in

the Appendix.

716. Regist. de Dunf., p. 3.

717. Reeves’s British Culdees, p. 46; Orig. Par. Scot., vol. ii. p.
573-580.

718. Fordun, Chron., B. iv. c. 40.

719. Regist. Ep. Ab., pref. pp. xvii. xviii.

720. See Preface to Chartulary of Aberdeen by the late Cosmo

Innes.

721. Regist. Ep. Ab., p. 5.

 722. In the Scotch Calendars St. Beyn appears both on 26th
October and on 16th December. The Breviary of Aberdeen has, on
26th October, Beyn Episcopus, and in Adam King’s Calendar he is
called bishop of Murthillach; but in the Martyrology of Aberdeen he
is identified with St. Beyn of Fowlis in Stratherne, who, we learn
from the Life of St. Cadroë, lived in the ninth century. Dempster, in
his Menologium, has him also at 16th December as bishop of
Murthlach, but this is also the day of St. Mobheoc in the Irish
Calendar, whose name was also Beoan; and, as he is mentioned in
the Felire of Angus, he must have lived before the eighth century.
See Mart. Donegal, p. 337.

723. For these notices see the Book of Deer, edited for the
Spalding Club by Dr. John Stuart, and his valuable Preface.

724. Regist. de Dunf., p. 5.

725. Regist. de Dunf., p. 74.

726. Brev. Ab., Pars Hyem., fol. lxvi.

727. Original at Dunrobin, quoted in Orig. Par., vol. ii. part ii. p.
601.

728. These deeds will be found conveniently brought together in

Reeves’s British Culdees, Evidences, M.

729. Reeves’s British Culdees, p. 114.

730. Theiner, Vetera Monumenta, pp. 16, 53, 59, 67.

731. Reeves’s British Culdees, p. 113.

732. Regist. Prior. S. And., appendix to preface, p. xxxi.

733. Ib., p. xiii.

734. Reeves’s British Culdees, p. 41.

 735. Reeves’s British Culdees, p. 130. Dr. Reeves remarks that the
name here appears in its Irish form of Cele De.

736. Ib., p. 52.

737. Reeves’s British Culdees, p. 132.

738. See Vol. I., p. 426.

739. Collections for a History of the Shires of Aberdeen and Βanff

(Spalding Club), pp. 169, 171.

740. See Reeves’s British Culdees, p. 136, for a note of these

charters.

741. Regist. Prior. S. And., pp. 368, 369.

742. Reeves’s British Culdees, p. 141.

743. Scotichron., B. v. c. 48; Regist. de Dunf., pp. 1, 3.

744. Regist. de Dunf., p. 17.

745. Records of Kinloss, edited by Dr. J. Stuart, pref. p. ix.

746. Anno Mclxiv de consilio Walthevi, abbatis de Melros, rex

Malcolmus fundavit nobile monasterium de Cupro in Angus—
Scotichron., B. viii. c. 7.

747. See Regist. vetus de Aberbrothoc and Liber Sanctæ Mariæ de

Lundois.

748. See for these grants Regist. Vetus de Aberbrothoc.

749. Reeves’s British Culdees, pp. 142, 143.

750. Regist. Vet. de Aberbrothoc, p. 5.

 751. Haddan and Stubbs’ Councils, vol. ii. p. 231.

752. Ib., p. 273.

753. Book of Deer, p. 95; Regist. de Dunf., p. 24.

754. Fordun’s Chron., vol. ii. pp. 436, 437.

755. Postquam illuc introduxit beatus Patricius Sanctam Brigidam,

sicut in quadam chronica ecclesiæ de Abirnethy reperimus, cum suis
novem virginibus in Scotiam, et obtulit Deo et beatæ Mariæ et
beatæ Brigidæ et virginibus suis omnes terras et decimas quas prior
et canonici habent ex antiquo.—Scotichron., B. iv. c. 12.

756. Reeves’s British Culdees, pp. 133, 134.

757. Hoc anno factus est prioratus de Abernethy in canonicos

regulares, qui prius fuerunt Keldei.—Scotichron., B. x. c. 33.

758. The charters referred to will be found conveniently brought

together in Reeves’s British Culdees, Evidences, O.

759. He appears in the Felire of Angus as Blann cain Chindgarad

—‘Blann the mild of Kingarth;’ and the gloss has .i. Espuc Cind-
garadh .i. Dumblaan a prim cathair agus o Chindgaradh do .i. hi n
Gallgaedelaib—that is, ‘Bishop of Kingarth—i.e. Dumblaan is his
principal city, and he is also of Kingarth among the Gallgael.’

760. Lib. Ins. Missarum, app. to preface, p. xxix.

761. See Reeves’s British Culdees, Evidences, S, p. 141.

762. Lib. Ins. Missarum, p. 3. This Malisius, ‘persona et eremita,’

was probably the Malisius, ‘persona de Dunblane,’ who witnesses a
charter of the bishop about 1190.—Reeves’s British Culdees, p. 142.
Inchaffray comes from Inisaifrenn, ‘the island of masses.’ This word
aifrenn, ‘an offering or mass,’ has in the river names been corrupted
into Peffer and Peffery.

763. Qui divisit comitatum suum in tres equales portiones, unam

ecclesiæ et episcopo Dumblanensi, aliam Sancto Johanni
Evangelistæ et canonicis de Insula Missarum, tertiam vero sibi et
suis usibus et heredibus suis reservavit.—Scotichron., B. viii. c. 73.

764. Regist. Prior. S. And., pp. 245, 246, 294, 295, 296, 349.

765. Item si calumpniatus vocaverit warentum aliquem in Ergadia

quæ pertinet ad Scociam tunc veniat ad comitem Atholiæ vel ad
abbatem de Glendochard et ipsi mittent cum eo homines suos qui
testentur supra dictam assisam. Si autem warentus vocatus fuerit de
Kintire vel de Comghal similiter Comes de Menteth mittet homines
suos cum calumpniato qui testentur supra dictam assisam.—Acta
Parl., vol. i. p. 50 (now 373).

766. Instrumenta Publica (Bannatyne Club), pp. 125, 128, 137.

767. Black Book of Taymouth (Ban. Club), preface, pp. xxxv. xxxvi.
The Coygerach has now been acquired by the Antiquarian Society,
and is deposited in the National Museum.

768. Mylne, Vitæ Ep. Dunk., p. 8.

769. Orig. Par., vol. ii. pp. 149, 151.

770. Origines Parochiales, vol. ii. p. 163, where there is a

representation of the staff.

771. Theiner, Monumenta, p. 33.

772. Theiner, Monumenta, p. 54.

773. Reg. Mag. Sig., B. xiv. No. 307. The name Gillemeluoc is
obviously Gillemaluog, ‘the servant of St. Maluog.’
 774. Ergadia quæ ad Scotiam pertinet.—Act. Parl., vol. i. 50.

775. Adam. Vit. S. Col., B. i. c. 2.

776. Chart. of Paisley, pp. 132, 203.

777. In 1497, John Colquhoun of Luss sold to John, earl of Argyll,

the lands and superiority of the two Ardinblathis, the two
Craigquholdis, and a half-merk land in the territory of
Innerquhappel, occupied by a certain procurator, ‘cum baculo sancti
Mundi,’ called in Scotch Deowray, and in the tenendas it is called
‘medietatem unius mercatæ nuncupat per deowry.’—Orig. Par., vol.
ii. p. 72.

778. All the notices above referred to will be found in a valuable

and exhaustive paper by Dr. Reeves on St. Maelrubha: his History
and Churches, in the Proc. Ant. Soc. Scot., vol. iii. p. 258. Dr. Reeves
considers that this family sprang from the herenachs, or hereditary
farmers of the abbey lands, but the notices rather indicate a family
of hereditary sagarts or priests.

779. Chron. of Man, ed. by Munch, p. 10.

780. 1164 Maithi muinnteri Ia .i. in Sacart mor Augustin agus in

Ferleighinn .i. Dubside agus in Disertach .i. MacGilladuibh agus Cenn
na Ceile n-De .i. Mac Foirrcellaigh agus Maithi Muinnteri Ia archena
do thiachtain ar cenn Comarba Coluimcille .i. Flaithbertach ua
Brolcain do gabail abdaine Ia a comairli Shomarlidh agus fer
Aerergaidhel agus Innsegal coro astaei comorba Patraic agus Ri
Eirenn .i. ua Lochlainn agus maithi Cenel Eoghain e.—An. Ult.;
Chron. Picts and Scots, p. 372.

781. One of the columns which supports the great tower of the
abbey church has on the upper portion the inscription ‘Donaldus
O’Brolchan fecit hoc opus;’ and the Irish Annals have at 1202,
‘Domnall h. Brolchain prior uasal shenoir togaide ar ceill ar cruth
ar deilb ar dutchus ar mine ar mordhacht ar midchaire ar crabud ar
ecna’ (Donald O’Brolchan, prior of , an elect noble senior, for
sense, for shape, for form, for birth, for gentleness, for majesty, for
affability, for piety, for wisdom), post magnam tribulationem et
optimam penitentiam in quintas Kalendas Maii ingressus est viam
universæ carnis.—An. Ult., A. F. M., etc.

782. Orig. Par., vol. ii. p. 23.

783. Reeves’s Adamnan, ed. 1874, p. 353. It has usually been

stated that the monks established here were Cluniacs; but the only
authority for this is Spottiswoode, in his account of religious houses.
The deed of confirmation, however, is in exactly the same terms as
those of Arbroath and Lindores, founded for Benedictines of Tyron,
and differs from that of Paisley, founded for Cluniacs. It was also a
peculiarity of the Cluniacs that the parent house at Clugny was alone
governed by an abbot, and the affiliated houses by priors only. See
the paper on the ruins at Iona in Reeves’s Adamnan, ed. 1874, p.
342.

784. Lib. Cart. S. Crucis, p. 41.

785. Mainistir do dhenumh do Chelluch ar lar Croi Ia gan nach

dlighedh, tar sarugadh muinnteri Ia, coro mill an baile co mor.
Sloghadh, dno, le Cleirchibh Erenn .i. la Florent hua Cerballan la
hEspuc tiri h-Eogain acus la Maelisa hua nDoirigh .i. Espuc tiri Conaill
acus la hAbbadh Reiclesa Phoil acus Phetair in Ardmacha acus la h-
Amalgaidh hua Cobthaidh acus sochaidhe mor do muinntir Doire
acus sochaidhe mor do cleirchibh an tuaiscert coro sgailset in
mainistir do reir dlighidh na hecailsi.—An. Ult.; Reeves’s Adamnan,
ed. 1874, p. 351. Dr. R. suggests that the glen in Iona called Gleann-
an-teampul may have been the site of this monastery and taken its
name from it; but the passage implies that the Baile, or town, was
situated in Cro Ia, and was injured by it. It was probably near where
the parish church is situated, behind which there are the remains of
an old burying-ground.
 CHAPTER X.

LEARNING AND LANGUAGE.

Character of the One of the most striking features of the

Irish Monastic organisation of the early Monastic Church in
Church for Ireland and Scotland was its provision for the
learning.
cultivation of learning and for the training of its
members in sacred and profane literature; so that it soon acquired a
high reputation for the cultivation of letters, and drew to it students
from all quarters, as the best school for the prosecution of all, and
especially theological, studies. The fathers and founders of this
Monastic Church had, as we have seen, been themselves taught,
some in the monastic school of Candida Casa, where they were
trained in the rules and institutions of monastic life and in the
knowledge of the Holy Scriptures,[786] and others in the monasteries
in Wales, presided over by David, Gildas and Cadoc, wise and
learned men, where they were instructed in learning and religion,
and studied with assiduity.[787] The school of Clonard, founded by
Finnian, who had himself been trained in the Welsh monasteries,
soon equalled them in reputation, and from it issued those fathers of
the Monastic Church termed the Twelve Apostles of Ireland. We are
told in the life of one of them, Ciaran of Saighir, that he with other
saints of Ireland went to Finnian of Clonard, renowned for his
wisdom, and in his holy school used to read in the divine Scriptures,
and that he lived both to learn and to hear the holy Scriptures.[788]
Resorted to by The Monastic Church of Ireland soon became
foreign students. so celebrated as a school of learning that
students flocked to it from all quarters; and in the seventh and
eighth centuries, when intercourse between it and the continental
churches was renewed, it certainly occupied in this respect the first
position among them. Bede tells us that, when the great pestilence
devastated Ireland in the year 664, ‘many of the nobility and of the
middle ranks of the Anglic nation were there at that time, who, in
the days of the bishops Finan and Colman, forsaking their native
island, had retired thither, for the sake either of divine studies or of a
more continent life; and some of them presently devoted themselves
faithfully to a monastic life, others chose rather to apply themselves
to study, going about from one master’s cell to another. The Scots
most willingly received them all, and took care to supply them
gratuitously with daily food, as also to furnish them with books to
read and their teaching, without making any charge;’[789] and of
Aldfrid, son of King Osuiu, who succeeded his brother Ecgfrid, when
he was slain by the Picts in 685, as king of Northumbria, Bede says
that ‘he was a man most learned in Scripture,’ ‘that he at that time
lived in exile in the islands of the Scots for the sake of studying
letters,’ and that, previous to his accession to the throne, ‘he had for
a considerable time gone into voluntary exile in the regions of the
Scots, for the sake of acquiring learning, through the love of
wisdom.’[790] We hear, too, in the Life of Senan, of ‘fifty Roman
monks who came to Ireland for the purpose of leading a life of
stricter discipline, or improving themselves in the study of the
Scriptures then much cultivated in Ireland, and became pupils of
those holy fathers who were most distinguished for sanctity of life
and the perfection of monastic discipline.’[791]
Iona as a school The Monastic Church, founded by Columba in
of learning. Iona, was not behind its mother church of Ireland
in this respect; and we are told by his biographer, Adamnan, that
Columba ‘never could spend even one hour without study, or prayer,
or writing, or some other holy occupation.’ He tells us, also, of a
book of hymns for the office of every day in the week, which had
been written by Columba, and of his transcribing the Psalter. We
read also of a prefect ‘learning wisdom with them.’[792] Columba, too,
appears to have cultivated his own language and not to have
despised his native literature; for, according to a quatrain quoted in
the old Irish life,
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