ED 101 REVIEWER

Individual Differences Factors

CHAPTER 1 12. Individual differences in learning - learners have
LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGY different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for
PRINCIPLES (LPC) learning that are a function of prior experience and
heredity.
“Learner-centered” - is the perspective that couples a 13. Learning and Diversity - learning is most effective
focus on individual learners - their heredity, when differences in learners' linguistic, cultural, and
experiences, perspectives, backgrounds, talents, social backgrounds are taken into account.
interests, capabilities, and the needs with a focus on 14. Standards and assessment - setting appropriate
learning. high and challenging standards and assessing the
- is a reflection in practice of the LCP - the programs, learner as well as learning process.
practices, policies, and people that support learning
for all. Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of the 14
principles and distilled them into five areas:
14 psychological principles pertain to the learner and 1. The knowledge base
the learning process. 2. Strategic processing and control
 The principle are intended to deal holistically 3. Motivation and affect
with learners in the context of real-world 4. Development and individual differences
learning situations. 5. Situation or context

The 14 principles are divided into those referring to CHAPTER 2

(1) cognitive and metacognitive, (2) motivational and LESSON 2: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT:
affective, (3) developmental and social, and (4) MEANING, CONCEPTS AND APPROACHES
individual difference factors influencing learners and
learning. Two approaches to human development:
Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors
Traditional Approach - extensive change from birth to
1. Nature of the learning process - the learning of
adolescence, little or no change in adulthood and
complex subject matter is most effective when it is an
intentional process of constructing meaning from decline in late old age, your approach to development.
information and experience.
2. Goals of the learning process - the successful Life-span Approach - adulthood developmental
learner, over time and with support and instructional change takes place as it does during childhood, your
guidance, can create meaningful, coherent approach is termed.
representations of knowledge.
3. Construction of knowledge - successful learner can  Development is lifelong - will continue
link nee information with existing knowledge in developing even in adulthood older adults were
meaningful ways. improved through training
4. Strategic thinking - successful learner can create  Development is multidimensional - consists of
and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional
strategies to achieve complex learning goals
dimensions - as a process is complex because it is
5. Thinking about thinking - higher order strategies
for selecting and monitoring mental operations the product of biological, cognitive and
facilitate creative and critical thinking. socioemotional processes.
6. Context of learning - learning is influenced by Biological processes - involve changes in the
environmental factors, including culture, technology, individual's physical nature.
and instructional practices.  Development is relatively orderly- will learn to
sit, crawl then walk before they can run.
Motivational and Affective Factors
7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning Proximodistal pattern - the greatest growth always
- what and how much is learned is influenced by the occurs at the top the head with physical growth in
learner's motivation. size, weight and future differentiation gradually
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn - stimulated by tasks working its way down from top to bottom (for
of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal
example, neck, shoulders, middle trunk and so on)
interests, and providing for personal choice and
Cephalo-caudal pattern - vertical
control.
9. Effects of motivation on effort - acquisition of
complex knowledge and skills require extended  Development takes place gradually- It takes
learner effort and guided practice. years before they become one. In fact, that's the
way of nature
Developmental and Social Factors
10. Developmental influences on learning - learning Cognitive processes - involve changes in the
is most effective when differential development individual's thought, intelligence, and language.
within and across physical, intellectual, emotional, Socioemotional processes - include changes in the
and social domains is taken into account. individual's relationships with other people, changes
11. Social influence on learning - learning is in emotions, and changes in personality.
influenced by social interactions, interpersonal
relations, and communication with others.
 Development is contextual - Individuals are successful achievement of which leads to happiness
changing beings in a changing world. Individuals and success with later tasks while failure leads to
respond to and act on contexts These contexts unhappiness, social disapproval, and difficulty with
include the individual's biological make up. later tasks."
physical environment, cognitive processes,
historical, social and cultural contexts. The eight (8) developmental stages cited by Santrock
 Development involves growth, maintenance are the same with Havighurst's six (6) developmental
and regulation- Growth, maintenance and stages only that Havighurst did not include prenatal
regulation are three (3) goals of human period. Havighurst combined infancy and early child-
development. hood while Santrock mentioned them as two (2)
separate stages.
THE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT AND
DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS ISSUES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

The prenatal period refers to the time from First Issue: Nature vs. Nurture
conception until birth. It can be divided into three This is the degree to which human behavior is
stages: determined by genetics/biology (nature)
Germinal stage: The first two weeks after Learned through interacting with the environment
conception. (nurture)
Embryonic period: From the third through the eighth
week. Second Issue: Continuity vs. Discontinuity
Fetal period: From the ninth week until birth. continuity theory says that someone changes
throughout their life along a smooth course
Infancy (from birth to 2 years) - This period is discontinuity theory instead contends that people
crucial for laying the foundation of physical, change abruptly.
cognitive, emotional, and social development.
Early Childhood (3 to 5 years) - We skipped played Third Issue: Stability vs. Change
and ran all day long, never in our lives so busy, busy Stability implies personality traits present during
becoming something we had not quite grasped yet. infancy endure throughout the lifespan.
Who knew our thoughts, which worked up into small Change that personalities are modified by interactions
mythologies all our own. Our thoughts and images with family, experiences at school, and acculturation.
and drawings took wings.
Middle and Late Childhood (6-12 years)- In middle DATA PRIVACY ACT OF 2012 (R.A 10173)
and late childhood, we were on a different plane,
belonging to a generation and a feeling properly our TEACHERS AS CONSUMERS/END USERS OF
own. It is the wisdom of human development that at RESEARCH
no other time we are more ready to learn than at the Research gives teachers and also policy
end of early childhood's period of expansive makers important knowledge to use in decision-
imagination. making for the benefit of learners and their families.
Adolescence (13-18 years) - In no order of things Well informed teachers are able to use and integrate
was adolescence, the simple time of life for us. We the most authoritative research findings.
clothed ourselves with rainbows and went 'brave as
the zodiac, flashing from one end of the world to the TEACHERS AS RESEARCHERS
other. We tried on one face after another, searching The conduct of research does not only belong
for a face of our own. to thesis and dissertation writers. It is for students and
Early adulthood (19-29 years)- is a time for work teachers, too. By engaging in research, teachers
and a time for love, sometimes leaving little time for deepen their understanding of how children and
anything else. For some of us, finding our place in adolescents learn and grow, leading to more effective
adult society and committing to a more stable life take teaching strategies and better outcomes for students.
longer than we imagine.
Middle adulthood (30-60 years)- what we have been THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
forms what we will be. For some of us, middle age is
such a foggy place, a time when we need to discover Dewey gave us 5 steps of the scientific methods.
what we are running from and to and why. We 1. Identify and define the problem - is a foundational
compare our life with what we vowed to make it. step that shapes the entire research process, from
Late adulthood (61 years and above)- The rhythm design to implementation, analysis, and dissemination
and meaning of human development eventually wend of findings.
their way to late adulthood, when each of us stands 2. Determine the hypothesis - is a critical step in the
alone at the heart of the earth and “suddenly it is research process that provides focus, direction, and a
evening” framework for analysis.
CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS 3. Collect and analyze data - These processes enable
researchers to generate new knowledge, test theories,
Robert Havighurst defines developmental task as and inform policies and practices
one that "arises at a certain period in our life, the
4. Formulate conclusions - involves summarizing the Date of Research -typically refers to the specific time
study's key findings, interpreting their significance, period when a particular research study or
and discussing their implications for the field. investigation was conducted.
5. Apply conclusions to the original hypothesis -This Introduction - is the opening section of a piece of
process is about closing the loop in research, linking writing, speech, or other forms of communication
the outcomes back to the original question or Methods - refers to the section of a research paper,
hypothesis to provide a clear understanding of what report, or study that details the procedures and
the research has revealed. techniques used to conduct the research.
Findings/Results of the study - presents the outcomes
RESEARCH DESIGN - Researches that are done of the research, specifically what was discovered
with high level of quality and integrity provide us through the research process.
with valuable information Conclusions and Recommendation - are typically the
final sections of a research paper, report, or study.
DIFFERENT KINDS OF RESEARCH DESIGN References - lists all the sources cited or consulted
during the research.
1. Case Study - is a research method that involves an
in-depth, detailed examination of a particular case DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES AND OTHER
2. Correlation Study - is a type of research that RELEVANT THEORIES
investigates the relationship between two or more
variables to determine if they are associated or Freud - is the most popular psychologist that studied
correlated. the development of personality His theory of
3. Experimental - that determines cause-and-effect psychosexual development
relationships. Freud identified specific erogenous zones for each
4. Naturalistic Observation - observing subjects in stage of development
their natural environment.
5. Longitudinal - studies and follows through a single Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development
group over a period of time.
6. Cross-Sectional - A research strategy in which 1. Oral Stage (birth to 18 months)
individuals of different ages are compared at one time This type of personality may be oral receptive,
7. Sequential - This is the combined cross-sectional that is, have a stronger tendency to smoke, drink
and longitudinal approaches to learn about life span alcohol, overeat, or oral aggressive.
development.
8. Action Research - is a reflective process of 2. Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years)
progressive problem solving led by individuals. The child's focus of pleasure in this stage is
the anus anal retentive, an obsession with cleanliness,
DATA GATHERING TECHNIQUES perfection, and control: or anal expulsive where the
person may become messy and disorganized.
5 Data Gathering Techniques
1. Observation - can be made in either laboratories or 3. Phallic Stage (Ages 3 to 6 years)
materialistic settings. In naturalistic observation - The pleasure or erogenous zone is the genitals.
2. Psychological Measures - Certain indicators of These feelings comprise what Freud called “Oedipus
children's development such as, among others, heart Complex” an Greek Mythology. developing
rate, hormonal levels, bone growth, body weight, and unconscious sexual attraction towards their father.
brain activity are measured. This is what is referred to as the “Electra Complex.”
3. Standardized Tests - These are prepared tests that
assess individuals' performance 4. Latency Stage (age 6 to puberty)
4. Interviews and Questionnaires - involve asking the The children's focus is the acquisition of physical and
participants to provide information academic skills.
5. Life History Records - these are records of 5. Genital Stage (puberty onwards)
information about a lifetime chronology of events and begins at the start of puberty when sexual urges are
activities. These include public records or historical once again awakened.
documents or interviews with respondent
Freud described the personality structures as having
ETHICAL PRINCIPLES - Code of Ethics that three components, the id, the ego and the superego.
governs the behavior of teachers, there also exist
ethical standards that guide the conduct of research ID - Freud says that, a child is born with the id. The
id plays a vital role in one's personality because as a
RESEARCH ABSTRACT baby, it works so that the baby's essential needs are
Title - is a name or designation given to something, met.
often used to identify or describe it. EGO - relates more with the environment, the ego
Researcher/s - are individuals who conduct slowly begins to emerge.
systematic investigations or studies to discover new SUPEREGO - person's moral aspect. This develops
information, validate existing knowledge, or solve from what the parents, teacher and other persons who
specific problems. exert influence impart to be good or moral .
 Decentering - ability of the child to perceive the
LEVEL OF AWARENESS different features of objects and situations.
Unconcious our awareness due to the extreme anxiety Reversibility - the child can now follow that certain
they caused. they still influence our thinking feeling operations can be done in reverse.
and doing in perhaps dramatic ways. Conservation - ability to know that certain properties
Concious we are only aware of a very small part of of objects like number, mass, volume, or area do not
what makes up our personality; most of what we are change even if there is a change in appearance.
is hidden and out of reach. Seriation - This refers to the ability to order or
Subconcious This is the part of us that we can reach if arrange things in a series based on one dimension
prompted, but is not in our active conscious. such as weight, volume or size.

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development 4. Formal Operational Stage - They can now solve
Jean Piaget's Cognitive Theory of Development is abstract problems and can hypothesize.
truly a classic in the field of educational psychology.
This theory fueled other researches and theories of Hypothetical Reasoning - ability to come up with
development and learning. Piaget called his general different hypothesis about a problem.
theoretical framework "genetic epistemology" Analogical reasoning - ability to perceive the
relationship in one instance.
BASIC COGNITIVE CONCEPTS Deductive Reasoning - ability to think logically by
applying a general rule to a particular instance or
1. Schema- refer to the cognitive structures by which situation.
individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their
environment. Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory of Development
2. Assimilation - This is the process of fitting a new
experience into an existing or previously created Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development is a
cognitive structure or schema. very relevant, highly regarded and meaningful theory.
3. Accommodation - This is the process of creating a
new schema. The Eight Psychological Stages of Development:
4. Equilibration -is achieving proper balance 1.Trust vs. Mistrust
between assimilation and accommodation. 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
3. Initiative vs. Guilt
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development 4. Industry vs. Inferiority
1. Sensorimotor Stage -This is the stage when a 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion
child who is initially reflexive in grasping, sucking 6. Intimacy vs. Role Confusion
and reaching becomes more organized in his 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation
movement and activity. 8. Integrity vs. Despair

Object permanence - This is the ability of the child to F. ) Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Theory
know that an object still exists even when out of sight.
This ability is attained in the sensory motor stage. Bronfenbrenner's model also known as the
“Bioecological Systems theory” presents child
2. Pre-Operational Stage - Intelligence at this stage development within the context of relationship
is intuitive in nature. At this stage, the child can now systems that comprise the child's environment.
make mental representations and is able to pretend, Bioecological - child's own biological make-up
the child is now ever closer to the use of symbols. impacts as a key factor in one's development.
Bronfenbrenner's Bioecological Model: Structure
Symbolic Function - ability to represent objects and of Environment
events.
Egocentrism - only see his point of view and to 1. The microsystem - is the layer nearest the child. It
assume that everyone also has his same point of view. comprises structures which the child directly interacts
Centration - only focus on one aspect of a thing or with. It includes structures such as one's family,
event and exclude other aspects. school and neighborhood.
Irreversibility - inability to reverse their thinking. 2. The mesosystem - connection between the
Animism - this is the tendency of children to attribute structures of the child's microsystem.
human like traits or characteristics to inanimate 3. The exosystem - refers to the bigger social system
objects. in which the child does not function directly.
Transductive reasoning - this refers to the pre- 4. The macrosystem - outermost part in the child's
operational child's type of reasoning that is neither environment. The macrosystem includes the cultural
inductive nor deductive. values, customs, and laws.
5. The chronosystem - covers the element of time as it
3. Concrete-Operational Stage - This stage is relates to a child's environments this involves
characterized by the ability of the child to think "patterns of stability and change" in the child's life.
logically but only in terms of concrete objects.
 According to the bioecological theory, "if the
relationships in the immediate microsystem break
down, the child will not have the tools to explore
other parts of his environment.”

Bronfenbrenner's theory reminds the school and

the teachers of their very important role.
PRE-NATAL STAGES (Pre-natal Development)

The Stages of Pre-natal Development

Pre-natal development is divided into three (3)
periods germinal, embryonic and fetal.

Germinal Period
This Includes the;
a) creation of the zygote,
b) continued cell division and
c) the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall.
germinal period the differentiation of cells already
begins as inner and outer layers of the organism are
formed
The blastocyst, the inner layer of cells that develops
during the germinal period, develops later into the
embryo.
The trophoblast, the outer layer of cells that
develops also during the germinal period, later
provides nutrition and Support for the embryo
(Nelson, Textbook Pediatrics, 17th ed., 2004)

Embryonic Period - in this stage, the name of the

mass cells, zygote, become embryo.

Fetal period - growth and development continue

dramatically during this period.

Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development

Teratology is the held that investigates the causes of

congenital (birth) defects. A teratogen is that which
causes birth defects It comes from the Greek word
"tera" which means "monster".

Prescription and nonprescription drugs - these

include prescription as well as non- prescription
drugs.
Psychoactive drugs - these include nicotine, caffeine
and illegal drugs such as marijuana, cocaine and
heroin.
Environmental hazards - these include radiation in
jobsites and X-rays, environmental pollutants, toxic
wastes, and prolonged exposure to heat in saunas and
bath tubs.
Paternal factors - fathers exposure to lead, radiation,
certain pesticides and petrochemicals may cause
abnormalities in sperm that lead to miscarriage or
diseases such as childhood cancer.