ADVANCE NETWORK

By Muhammad Faraz Ali Shah

 Week: 6
Lecture: 1
Topic: network layer
Program: BSCS /Bcs

Contact: Farazali5630@gmail.com
Department Of Computer Science and IT
QURTUBA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
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 Week 2:
Topics To Cover This Week

• Physical layer
• Physical media accessing

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Physical layer:
The Physical Layer is the first layer of the OSI (Open
Systems Interconnection) reference model, which is a
conceptual framework used to understand and implement
network protocols in seven layers. The Physical Layer is
crucial as it deals with the physical connection between
devices and the transmission of raw data bits over a
physical medium.
 Count….

• The Physical Layer's primary function is to transmit raw bit

streams over a physical medium. This includes defining the
hardware elements involved in the transmission, such as
cables, switches, and network interface cards. The key
responsibilities of the Physical Layer include:

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 1. Transmission Media:

The Physical Layer specifies the types of media used

for data transmission, which can be wired (like coaxial
cables, fiber optics, and twisted pair cables) or
wireless (like radio waves and infrared). Each medium
has its own characteristics, such as bandwidth,
attenuation, and interference susceptibility, which
affect the overall performance of the network.

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 2. Data Encoding:

This layer defines how the binary data (0s and 1s) is
converted into signals suitable for the transmission
medium. Various encoding schemes, such as Manchester
encoding or Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ), are used to
ensure that the data can be accurately transmitted and
received.

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 3. Signal Transmission:

The Physical Layer is responsible for the actual

transmission of signals over the medium. This
includes defining the electrical, optical, or radio
signals used for communication. Factors like voltage
levels, timing, and modulation techniques are crucial
here to ensure that the signals can be reliably sent
and received.

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 4. Physical Topology:

The Physical Layer also defines the arrangement of

devices in a network, known as the physical
topology. Common topologies include star, ring, bus,
and mesh. Each topology has its advantages and
disadvantages in terms of cost, performance, and
ease of installation.

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 5. Data Rate Control:

The Physical Layer determines the rate at which

data can be transmitted over the network. This is
often referred to as the bandwidth of the medium.
Higher bandwidth allows for more data to be
transmitted simultaneously, which can improve the
overall network performance.

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6. Error Detection and Correction:

While the Physical Layer primarily focuses on

the transmission of data without concern for the
content, some error detection mechanisms can be
implemented at this layer. For instance,
checksums or parity bits may be used to identify
transmission errors.
SUMMARY:

In summary, the Physical Layer is a foundational

component of the OSI model that plays a vital role in
enabling communication between devices by
defining the physical means of data transmission.
Understanding its functions and characteristics is
essential for anyone working in networking and
telecommunications. This layer sets the stage for the
higher layers of the OSI model, which focus on data
formatting, session management, and application
services.
Introduction to Physical Media Access

Definition:
Physical media access involves mechanisms and techniques
to send and receive data across different physical mediums.
Importance:
• Connects devices in a network.
• Impacts speed, reliability, and efficiency of data
communication.
Example: Ethernet, Wi-Fi.
Types of Physical Media

Guided Media:
Data travels along a physical pathway.
• Twisted Pair Cables
• Coaxial Cables
• Fiber Optic Cables
Unguided Media:
Data propagates freely through space.
• Radio Waves
• Microwaves
• Infrared
Characteristics of Physical Media

Bandwidth: Maximum data transfer rate.

Latency: Time taken for data to travel.
Noise Susceptibility: Resistance to electromagnetic
interference.
Distance and Cost: Range and expense for
deployment.
Access Techniques
Channel Sharing Techniques:
How multiple devices share the same medium.
• Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM): Splits the medium into
frequency bands.
• Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): Allocates time slots to different
transmissions.
• Code Division Multiplexing (CDM): Uses unique codes for
simultaneous transmissions.
 Media Access Control (MAC)
Definition: Protocols to control access to the shared medium.
Key Protocols:
• CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection):
Used in wired networks like Ethernet.
• CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance):
Used in wireless networks like Wi-Fi.
Real-World Applications

Wired Networks: Local Area Networks (LANs)

using Ethernet.
Wireless Networks: Mobile communication, satellite
systems, and IoT.
Optical Networks: High-speed connections.
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Challenges in Physical Media Access
Scalability: Managing increasing users
and devices.
Interference: Minimizing cross-talk and
signal distortion.
Security: Protecting against
unauthorized access.
Future Trends:
5G and Beyond: Enhanced wireless
access with higher bandwidth and
lower latency.
Fiber Optics Expansion: Increased
use in broadband services.
Green Networking: Energy-efficient
communication technologies.
Conclusion:
Summary:
• Physical media access ensures efficient communication.
• Choice of media affects speed, cost, and scalability.
• Continuous advancements improve network
performance.
Introduction:
What is the Data Link Layer?
• Second layer in the OSI Model.
• Responsible for reliable data transfer over a physical
link.
Key Functions:
• Framing, Error Detection/Correction, Flow Control, and
Medium Access Control (MAC).
Importance of Data Link Layer Protocols:
Ensures proper communication between adjacent
nodes in a network.
Provides mechanisms for addressing and error-free
delivery.
Helps regulate access to the shared communication
medium.
Key Protocols at the Data Link Layer
Ethernet (IEEE 802.3):
• Widely used in wired LANs.
• Features CSMA/CD for collision detection.
• Speeds range from 10 Mbps to 400 Gbps.
Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11):
• Standard for wireless LANs.
• Uses CSMA/CA for collision avoidance.
• Supports multiple frequencies (2.4 GHz, 5 GHz).
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP):
• Used for direct communication between two devices (e.g., dial-up).
• Provides authentication and error-checking mechanisms.
HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control):
• Synchronous protocol.
• Used in WAN connections for framing and error detection.
Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)
Frame Structure:
•Preamble, Destination/Source MAC
Address.
•MAC Method: CSMA/CD.
Applications: LANs in homes, offices, and data
centers.
Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)
Frame Structure:
• Management, Control, and Data Frames.
Access Method: CSMA/CA.
Key Features:
• Encryption protocols (WEP, WPA, WPA2).
Roaming between access points.
PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)
Features:
•Framing for encapsulation.
•Error detection using cyclic redundancy
checks (CRC).
•Supports multiple protocols (e.g., IP, IPv6).
Applications: Dial-up connections, DSL links.
: Error Detection and Correction Techniques

Methods Used in Protocols:

• Parity Check.
• Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC).
• Hamming Code.
Importance: Ensures data integrity across unreliable
mediums.
Real-World Applications
Ethernet: Backbone of corporate LANs and
high-speed networks.
Wi-Fi: Public hotspots, home networks, and
IoT devices.
PPP/HDLC: WAN links for ISPs and
enterprise connections.
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Challenges at the Data Link Layer
Scalability: Handling large-scale networks.
Interference: Managing wireless medium reliability.
Security: Addressing vulnerabilities in protocols like
Wi-Fi.
Future Trends
Higher Speed Ethernet: 800 Gbps and beyond.
Wi-Fi 7: Improved latency and throughput.
Software-Defined Networking (SDN): Dynamic
protocol management.
HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control)
Key Features:
•Synchronous, bit-oriented protocol.
•Provides flow control and error
detection.
Applications: WAN links, especially in
legacy systems.
Conclusion:
Summary:
• Data Link Layer protocols enable efficient, reliable communication.
• Adapted for wired and wireless environments.
• Continuous innovation is expanding capabilities.
Call to Action: Reflect on how the choice of protocol impacts network design and efficiency.
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Introduction:
What are Asynchronous Protocols?
•Protocols that transmit data without
clock synchronization between sender
and receiver.
•Essential for low-speed communication
over serial links.
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Overview of Asynchronous Communication:
Key Features:
• Byte-oriented transmission.
• Use of start and stop bits for framing.
• Suitable for intermittent and low-speed
communication.
Applications:
• File transfers, modem communications, and legacy
systems.
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XMODEM Protocol:
Overview:
• One of the earliest file transfer protocols.
• Simple and reliable but inefficient.
Key Features:
• Uses 128-byte fixed-size packets.
• Includes a checksum for error detection.
• Stop-and-wait flow control.
Limitations:
• High overhead due to fixed packet size.
• No support for large files or long-distance
communication..
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YMODEM Protocol:
Overview:
• Enhanced version of XMODEM.
• Supports batch file transfers.
Key Features:
• Larger packet size (1 KB).
• Includes a header with metadata (file size, name, etc.).
• Faster and more efficient than XMODEM.
Applications: File transfer over modem-based connections.
.
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ZMODEM Protocol:
Overview:
• Advanced protocol designed to overcome XMODEM and
YMODEM limitations.
• Provides robust and fast file transfer.
Key Features:
• Variable packet sizes for efficiency.
• Resume interrupted file transfers.
• Full-duplex communication.
Advantages:
• Error correction using CRC.
• No stop-and-wait delays, resulting in higher speeds.
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BLAST Protocol:
Overview:
• High-speed file transfer protocol developed for
use over serial lines.
• Offers better throughput than
XMODEM/YMODEM.
Key Features:
• Sliding window for flow control.
• Error detection and retransmission.
Applications: Communication in legacy systems.
.
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Kermit Protocol:
Overview:
• Designed for versatile and error-resistant file transfer.
• Supports a wide range of devices and systems.
Key Features:
• Adaptive packet sizes.
• Error correction and compression.
• ASCII and binary file support.
Advantages:
• Highly configurable.
• Works well in low-bandwidth environments.
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Advantages and Applications
Advantages of Asynchronous Protocols:
• Simple to implement.
• Useful in low-speed and intermittent
communication.
Applications:
• File transfers in early computer networks.
• Communication in embedded systems and legacy
networks.
• Reliable transfers over noisy channels.
Challenges:
Overhead: Increased due to start/stop
bits and error correction.
Efficiency: Limited speed compared to
modern synchronous protocols.
Compatibility Issues: Outdated in
many modern network environments.
Future and Relevance:
Modern Use Cases:
• Embedded systems and IoT devices.
• Situations requiring lightweight and robust
protocols.
Transition:
• Modern networks largely use synchronous
protocols like TCP/IP for higher efficiency.
Conclusion
Summary:
• Asynchronous protocols like XMODEM, YMODEM,
ZMODEM, BLAST, and Kermit were critical for early
data communication.
• Their simplicity and reliability made them widely used
despite limitations.
• Understanding these protocols provides insight into the
evolution of network technologies.
Introduction:
What are Synchronous Protocols?
• Protocols that require sender and receiver to
synchronize clocks for continuous data flow.
• Data transmitted as a stream of frames without
start and stop bits.
Significance in Data Link Layer:
• Provides efficient, high-speed communication.
Overview of Synchronous Communication:
Key Characteristics:
• Frames are transmitted back-to-back with minimal
gaps.
• Relies on timing signals for synchronization.
Applications:
• High-speed LANs, WANs, and real-time
communication systems.
Classification of Synchronous Protocols:
Two Main Types:
• Character-Oriented Protocols:
• Use special character codes for framing.
• Bit-Oriented Protocols:
• Use bit patterns for framing and control.
Character-Oriented Protocols:
Definition:
Protocols that use ASCII or other character sets to identify control functions and frame
boundaries.
Key Features:
• Frames begin and end with special control characters (e.g., STX and ETX).
• Simple and easy to implement.
Examples:
• BISYNC (Binary Synchronous Communication):
• Developed by IBM for early data communication.
• Uses SYN (synchronize) characters for framing.
• DDCMP (Digital Data Communication Message Protocol):
• Developed by DEC, uses character-based framing.
Limitations:
• Vulnerable to character-based errors in payload.
• Limited efficiency compared to bit-oriented protocols.
Frame Structure in Character-Oriented Protocols

Components:
• Header: Contains control and synchronization characters.
• Data Field: Payload or message.
• Trailer: Includes error detection information (e.g., checksum).
Diagram: Include a visual representation of a character-oriented frame.
Bit-Oriented Protocols:
Definition:
Protocols that treat data as a continuous stream of bits without regard to character boundaries.
Key Features:
• Use specific bit patterns for framing.
• More efficient and versatile than character-oriented protocols.
Examples:
• HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control):
• Widely used for WAN communication.
• Uses bit stuffing to avoid confusion with frame delimiters.
• SDLC (Synchronous Data Link Control):
• IBM's precursor to HDLC.
• Implements error recovery and flow control.
• PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol):
• Extensively used in dial-up and broadband links.
Frame Structure in Bit-Oriented Protocols
Components:
• Flag: Delimiter to indicate start and end of the frame (e.g., 01111110 in
HDLC).
• Address Field: Identifies the recipient.
• Control Field: Indicates type of frame (e.g., data or control).
• Payload: Contains the actual data.
• CRC: Ensures error detection.
Diagram: Include a visual representation of a bit-oriented frame.
Key Differences Between Character-Oriented and Bit-Oriented Protocols

. Character-Oriented
Feature Bit-Oriented Protocols
Protocols

Frame Boundary Uses control characters Uses bit patterns

Higher due to compact

Efficiency Lower due to overhead
framing
Prone to character More robust with bit
Error Vulnerability
corruption patterns
High (supports varied
Versatility Limited
payloads)
Advantages of Synchronous Protocols

Character-Oriented Protocols:
• Simplicity and ease of implementation.
• Suitable for text-based communication.
Bit-Oriented Protocols:
• Higher efficiency for binary data.
• Robust error detection and correction mechanisms.
Challenges:
Character-Oriented Protocols:
• Inefficient for binary data.
• Limited scalability for modern networks.
Bit-Oriented Protocols:
• Complexity in implementation.
• Requires precise synchronization and bit-stuffing
mechanisms.
Real-World Applications:
Character-Oriented Protocols:
• Early text-based systems, legacy devices.
Bit-Oriented Protocols:
• HDLC in WANs and telecom networks.
• PPP in DSL, ISDN, and broadband communication.
Future Trends:

Transition to more flexible, adaptive protocols in modern

networking (e.g., SDN, MPLS).
Enhanced efficiency in bit-oriented protocols for high-speed
and low-latency applications.
Summary:

• Character-oriented protocols laid the foundation for

early communication systems.
• Bit-oriented protocols revolutionized data efficiency
and error handling.
• Both have contributed significantly to networking's
evolution.
Thank you!

Muhammad Faraz Ali Shah

Lecturer Cs
Farazali5630@gmail.com