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3-1 ANALOG AND DIGITAL

Signal can be Analog or Digital

Analog signals can have an infinite number of values in a range.

Note Digital signals can have only a limited number of values.

To be transmitted, Data must be

transformed to electromagnetic Signals.

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Figure 3.1 Comparison of analog and digital signals

Analog and Digital Data
Data can also be Analog or
Digital.
 The term Analog data
refers to information that
is continuous;
 Analog data take on
continuous values.
 Digital data refers to
information that has
discrete states.
 Digital data have discrete
states and take on discrete
values.

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Topics discussed in this section:

Analog and Digital Devices
Periodic Non Periodic Signal
Sine Wave
 Wavelength
 Time and Frequency Domain
 Composite Signals
 Bandwidth

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3-2 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS 3-2 PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS

Signals
In data communications, we commonly use periodic
analog signals and nonperiodic digital signals.
analog signals digital signals
Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or
composite. periodic nonperiodic periodic nonperiodic
A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave, cannot be
decomposed into simpler signals.
A composite periodic analog signal is composed of sine wave composite signal
multiple sine waves.

sine wave

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Figure 3.2 A sine wave

A Sine wave is understood by three characteristics

Amplitude
Frequency
Phase Note

Amplitude is the energy, voltage or

strength of the signal at an instant. Peak
Amplitude is the maximum energy of the
signa

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Figure 3.3 Two signals with the same phase and frequency,
but different amplitudes
Frequency
• Frequency is the rate of change with respect
to time.
• Change in a short span of time means high
frequency.
• Change over a long span of
time means low frequency.

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Figure 3.4 Two signals with the same amplitude and phase,
but different frequencies Table 3.1 Units of period and frequency

Frequency and period are

the inverse of each other.

If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is zero.

If a signal changes instantaneously, its frequency is
infinite.

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Example 3.1 Example 3.2

The power we use at home has a frequency of 60 Hz. The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency in
The period of this sine wave can be determined as kilohertz?
follows:
Solution
First we change 100 ms to seconds, and then we
calculate the frequency from the period (1 Hz = 10−3
kHz).

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Figure 3.5 Three sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency,
but different phases

Note

Phase describes the position of the

waveform relative to time 0.

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Example 3.3

A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to time 0.

What is its phase in degrees and radians?
Solution
We know that 1 complete cycle is 360°. Therefore, 1/6
cycle is

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Figure 3.6 Wavelength and period Figure 3.2 A sine wave

Why it is called Sine wave ??

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General format for Sine Wave Relation between θ and ω

Before understanding the sine wave representation . We understand the
Relation between θ and ω

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Representation of Sine wave in

General format for Sine Wave
Frequency Domain
Mathematical representation of a Sine wave is
At=Am (Sin ωt+Φ)
Where Φ is the phase Beside Time domain, we can represent a Sine
wave in Frequency domain also where we have
Frequency on x-axis and Amplitude on Y axis
The Frequency domain is more compact and
useful when we are dealing with more than one
sine wave.
A complete sine wave in the time
domain can be represented by one
single spike in the frequency domain.
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Figure 3.7 The time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave Figure 3.8 The time domain and frequency domain of three sine waves

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Time domain and Frequency Advantage of Frequency

domain Domain
Two Sinusoids

When combined form

a composite signal Suppose these
signals got noise
merged in them.
Not understandable
now

In frequency
Same Sinusoids and domainAmplitude
Composite signals in of noise is low. The
Frequency Domain main Signal can
easily be identified
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Time and Frequency Domain Signals and Communication

 A single-frequency sine wave is not
useful in data communications
 We need to send a composite signal, a
signal made of many simple sine
waves.
 According to Fourier analysis, any
composite signal is a combination of
simple sine waves with different
frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.
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Example
Composite Signals and
Figure shows a periodic composite signal with frequency
Periodicity f. This type of signal is not typical of those found in data
 If the composite signal is periodic, the communications. We can consider it to be three alarm
decomposition gives a series of signals systems, each with a different frequency. The analysis of
this signal can give us a good understanding of how to
with discrete frequencies.
decompose signals.
 If the composite signal is nonperiodic, the
decomposition gives a combination of
sine waves with continuous frequencies.

A composite periodic signal

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Figure 3.10 Decomposition of a composite periodic signal in the time and Example
frequency domains

Figure shows a nonperiodic composite signal. It can be

the signal created by a microphone or a telephone set
when a word or two is pronounced. In this case, the
composite signal cannot be periodic, because that
implies that we are repeating the same word or words
with exactly the same tone.

The time and frequency domains of a nonperiodic signal

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Figure The bandwidth of periodic and nonperiodic composite signals

Bandwidth and Signal
Frequency
 The bandwidth of a composite signal is
the difference between the highest and
the lowest frequencies contained in that
signal.

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Example Example

If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves with frequencies of 100, A periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest frequency is 60 Hz.
300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what is its bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, What is the lowest frequency? Draw the spectrum if the signal contains all
assuming all components have a maximum amplitude of 10 V. frequencies of the same amplitude.
Solution Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency, and B the Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency, and B the
bandwidth. Then bandwidth. Then

The spectrum contains all integer frequencies.

The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz
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Example 3.8 Example 3.9 & 3.10

A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz, with a middle

frequency of 140 kHz and peak amplitude of 20 V. The two extreme frequencies Examples of nonperiodic composite
have an amplitude of 0. Draw the frequency domain of the signal. signal are the signals propagated by an
Solution AM radio station and FM radio station
The lowest frequency must be at 40 kHz and the highest at 240
Ex: In the United States, each AM
kHz. Figure shows the frequency domain and the bandwidth. radio station is assigned a 10-kHz
bandwidth. The total bandwidth
dedicated to AM radio ranges from 540
to 1600 kHz.

Ex: While, each FM radio station is

assigned a 200-kHz bandwidth. The
total bandwidth dedicated to FM radio
ranges from 88 to 108 MHz. A Total Bandwidth A Total Bandwidth
of 1060 KHz of 20 MHz

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Example 3.11 3-3 DIGITAL SIGNALS

Another example of a nonperiodic composite signal is the signal received by an In addition to being represented by an analog signal,
old-fashioned Analog black-and-white TV. information can also be represented by a digital signal.
A TV screen is made up of pixels. If we assume a resolution of 525 × 700, we
have 367,500 pixels per screen. For example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage
and a 0 as zero voltage. A Digital signal is also called as
Discrete signal

If we scan the screen 30 times per second, this is

367,500 × 30 = 11,025,000 pixels per second. Actual representation of a Digital signal
These are just
The worst-case scenario is alternating black and white pixels. We can send 2 the transitions
pixels per cycle. Therefore, we need 11,025,000 / 2 = 5,512,500 cycles per in between the
second, or Hz. The bandwidth needed is 5.5125 MHz. levels

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Figure 3.16 Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and the other Example 3.16
with four signal levels

2 levels => we can send 1 bit per level

4 levels => we can send 2 bits per level
8 levels => we can send 3 bits per level

We calculate the number of bits from the formula

If B=Number of Bits per level
And L=Number of levels

B=log2L

A digital signal L=2B

can have more
than two levels.

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Example 3.17 Example 3.18

A digital signal has nine levels. How many bits are Assume we need to download text documents at the rate
needed per level? of 100 pages per sec. What is the required bit rate of the
We calculate the number of bits by using the formula. channel?
Each signal level is represented by 3.17 bits. However, Solution
this answer is not realistic. The number of bits sent per A page is an average of 24 lines with 80 characters in
level needs to be an integer as well as a power of 2. For each line. If we assume that one character requires 8
this example, 3 bits can represent one level. bits (ascii), the bit rate is

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Example 3.19 Example 3.20

A digitized voice channel, as we will see later, is made by What is the bit rate for high-definition TV (HDTV)?
digitizing a 4-kHz bandwidth analog voice signal. We
need to sample the signal at twice the highest frequency Solution
(two samples per hertz). We assume that each sample HDTV uses digital signals to broadcast high quality
requires 8 bits. What is the required bit rate? video signals. The HDTV screen is normally a ratio of
16 : 9. There are 1920 by 1080 pixels per screen, and the
Solution screen is renewed 30 times per second. Twenty-four bits
The bit rate can be calculated as represents one color pixel.

The TV stations reduce this rate to 20 to 40 Mbps

through compression.
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Figure 3.17 The time and frequency domains of periodic and nonperiodic
digital signals Baseband Transmissions

Figure 3.18 Baseband transmission

A digital signal is a composite analog signal with an infinite bandwidth.

Figure 3.20 Baseband transmission using a dedicated medium
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Figure 3.19 Bandwidths of two low-pass channels

Note

Baseband transmission of a digital

signal that preserves the shape of the
digital signal is possible only if we have
a low-pass channel with an infinite or
very wide bandwidth.

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Figure 3.22 Simulating a digital signal with first three harmonics

Note

In baseband transmission, the required

bandwidth is proportional to the bit rate;
In baseband transmission, the required bandwidth is
if we needproportional
to send to bits faster,
the bit rate; we need
more bandwidth.
if we need to send bits faster, we need more bandwidth.

Table 3.2 Bandwidth requirements

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Figure 3.23 Bandwidth of a bandpass channel

Example 3.22

What is the required bandwidth of a low-pass channel if

we need to send 1 Mbps by using baseband transmission?

Solution
The answer depends on the accuracy desired.
a. The minimum bandwidth, is B = bit rate /2, or 500 kHz.
Note
b. A better solution is to use the first and the third
harmonics with B = 3 × 500 kHz = 1.5 MHz. If the available channel is a bandpass channel, we
cannot send the digital signal directly to the channel;
we need to convert the digital signal to an analog
c. Still a better solution is to use the first, third, and fifth signal before transmission.
harmonics with B = 5 × 500 kHz = 2.5 MHz.
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Example 3.24 Figure 3.24 Modulation of a digital signal for transmission on a bandpass
channel

An example of broadband transmission using

modulation is the sending of computer data through a
telephone subscriber line, the line connecting a resident
to the central telephone office. These lines are designed
Modem Modem
to carry voice with a limited bandwidth. The channel is
considered a bandpass channel. We convert the digital
signal from the computer to an analog signal, and send
the analog signal. We can install two converters to
change the digital signal to analog and vice versa at the
receiving end. The converter, in this case, is called a
modem

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Example 3.25 3-4 TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT

Signals travel through transmission media, which are not

A second example is the digital cellular telephone. For
perfect. The imperfection causes signal impairment. This
better reception, digital cellular phones convert the
means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is
analog voice signal to a digital signal (see Chapter 16).
not the same as the signal at the end of the medium.
Although the bandwidth allocated to a company
What is sent is not what is received. Three causes of
providing digital cellular phone service is very wide, we
impairment are attenuation, distortion, and noise.
still cannot send the digital signal without conversion.
The reason is that we only have a bandpass channel
available between caller and callee. We need to convert Topics discussed in this section:
the digitized voice to a composite analog signal before  Attenuation
sending.  Distortion
 Noise

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Figure 3.25 Causes of impairment Attenuation

 Means loss of energy -> weaker signal

 When a signal travels through a medium it
loses energy overcoming the resistance of
the medium
 Amplifiers are used to compensate for this
loss of energy by amplifying the signal.

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Figure 3.26 Attenuation

Measurement of Attenuation

 To show the loss or gain of energy the unit

“decibel” is used.

dB = 10log10P2/P1
P1 - input signal
P2 - output signal

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Example 3.26 Example 3.27

Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium and its A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is increased
power is reduced to one-half. This means that P2 is (1/2)P1. In this 10 times. This means that P2 = 10P1 . In this case, the
case, the attenuation (loss of power) can be calculated as amplification (gain of power) can be calculated as

A loss of 3 dB (–3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half the power.

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Example 3.28 Example 3.29

One reason that engineers use the decibel to measure the changes
in the strength of a signal is that decibel numbers can be added
Sometimes the decibel is used to measure signal power
(or subtracted) when we are measuring several points (cascading) in milliwatts. In this case, it is referred to as dBm and is
instead of just two. In Following Figure a signal travels from calculated as dBm = 10 log10 Pm , where Pm is the power
point 1 to point 4. In this case, the decibel value can be calculated in milliwatts. Calculate the power of a signal with dBm =
as −30.

Solution
We can calculate the power in the signal as

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Example 3.30
Distortion
The loss in a cable is usually defined in decibels per kilometer
(dB/km). If the signal at the beginning of a cable with −0.3 dB/km  Means that the signal changes its form or shape
has a power of 2 mW, what is the power of the signal at 5 km?
Solution
 Distortion occurs in composite signals
The loss in the cable in decibels is 5 × (−0.3) = −1.5 dB. We can  Each frequency component has its own
calculate the power as propagation speed traveling through a medium.
 The different components therefore arrive with
different delays at the receiver.
 That means that the signals have different phases
at the receiver than they did at the source.

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Figure 3.28 Distortion

Noise
 There are different types of noise
 Thermal - random noise of electrons in the wire
creates an extra signal
 Induced - from motors and appliances, devices
act are transmitter antenna and medium as
receiving antenna.
 Crosstalk - same as above but between two
wires.
 Impulse - Spikes that result from power lines,
lighning, etc.

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Figure 3.29 Noise

Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)

 To measure the quality of a system the SNR

is often used. It indicates the strength of the
signal wrt the noise power in the system.
 It is the ratio between two powers.
 It is usually given in dB and referred to as
SNRdB.

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Example 3.31 Example 3.32

The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the The values of SNR and SNRdB for a noiseless channel
noise is 1 μW; what are the values of SNR and SNRdB ? are

Solution
The values of SNR and SNRdB can be calculated as
follows:
We can never achieve this ratio in real life; it is an ideal.

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3-5 DATA RATE LIMITS

Figure 3.30 Two cases of SNR: a high SNR and a low SNR
A very important consideration in data communications
is how fast we can send data, in bits per second, over a
channel. Data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)

Topics discussed in this section:

 Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate
 Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity
 Using Both Limits

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Capacity of a System
 The bit rate of a system increases with an increase
in the number of signal levels we use to denote a
Note symbol.
 A symbol can consist of a single bit or “n” bits.
Increasing the levels of a signal  The number of signal levels = 2n.
increases the probability of an error  As the number of levels goes up, the spacing
occurring, in other words it reduces the between level decreases -> increasing the
reliability of the system. Why?? probability of an error occurring in the presence of
transmission impairments.

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Example 3.33
Nyquist Theorem
 Nyquist gives the upper bound for the bit rate of a Does the Nyquist theorem bit rate agree with the
transmission system by calculating the bit rate intuitive bit rate described in baseband transmission?
directly from the number of bits in a symbol (or
signal levels) and the bandwidth of the system Solution
(assuming 2 symbols/per cycle and first They match when we have only two levels. We said, in
harmonic). baseband transmission, the bit rate is 2 times the
 Nyquist theorem states that for a noiseless bandwidth if we use only the first harmonic in the worst
channel: case. However, the Nyquist formula is more general than
C = 2 B log2 n what we derived intuitively; it can be applied to baseband
C= capacity in bps transmission and modulation. Also, it can be applied
B = bandwidth in Hz when we have two or more levels of signals.
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Example 3.34 Example 3.35

Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting a
Hz transmitting a signal with two signal levels. The signal with four signal levels (for each level, we send 2
maximum bit rate can be calculated as bits). The maximum bit rate can be calculated as

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Example 3.36
Shannon’s Theorem
We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with
a bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many signal levels do we  Shannon’s theorem gives the capacity of a
need?
system in the presence of noise.
Solution
We can use the Nyquist formula as shown:
C = B log2(1 + SNR)

Since this result is not a power of 2, we need to either

increase the number of levels or reduce the bit rate. If we
have 128 levels, the bit rate is 280 kbps. If we have 64
levels, the bit rate is 240 kbps.
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Example 3.37 Example 3.38

Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a
of the signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero. In other regular telephone line. A telephone line normally has a
words, the noise is so strong that the signal is faint. For bandwidth of 3000. The signal-to-noise ratio is usually
this channel the capacity C is calculated as 3162. For this channel the capacity is calculated as

This means that the capacity of this channel is zero

This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line
regardless of the bandwidth. In other words, we cannot
is 34.860 kbps. If we want to send data faster than this,
receive any data through this channel.
we can either increase the bandwidth of the line or
improve the signal-to-noise ratio.
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Example 3.39 Example 3.40

The signal-to-noise ratio is often given in decibels. For practical purposes, when the SNR is very high, we
Assume that SNRdB = 36 and the channel bandwidth is 2 can assume that SNR + 1 is almost the same as SNR.
MHz. The theoretical channel capacity can be calculated
as

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Example 3.41 Example 3.41 (continued)

We have a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth. The SNR The Shannon formula gives us 6 Mbps, the upper limit.
for this channel is 63. What are the appropriate bit rate For better performance we choose something lower, 4
and signal level? Mbps, for example. Then we use the Nyquist formula to
find the number of signal levels.
Solution
First, we use the Shannon formula to find the upper
limit.

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3-6 PERFORMANCE

One important issue in networking is the performance of

the network—how good is it? We discuss quality of
Note service, an overall measurement of network performance,
in greater detail in Chapter 24. In this section, we
The Shannon capacity gives us the introduce terms that we need for future chapters.
upper limit; the Nyquist formula tells us
how many signal levels we need. Topics discussed in this section:
 Bandwidth - capacity of the system
 Throughput - no. of bits that can be
pushed through
 Latency (Delay) - delay incurred by a bit
from start to finish
 Bandwidth-Delay Product
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Example 3.42
Note
The bandwidth of a subscriber line is 4 kHz for voice or
In networking, we use the term data. The bandwidth of this line for data transmission
bandwidth in two contexts. can be up to 56,000 bps using a sophisticated modem to
 The first, bandwidth in hertz, refers to the change the digital signal to analog.
range of frequencies in a composite signal
or the range of frequencies that a channel
can pass.
 The second, bandwidth in bits per second,
refers to the speed of bit transmission in a
channel or link. Often referred to as
Capacity.
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Example 3.43 Example 3.44

If the telephone company improves the quality of the line A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an
and increases the bandwidth to 8 kHz, we can send average of 12,000 frames per minute with each frame
112,000 bps by using the same technology as mentioned carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is the
in Example 3.42. throughput of this network?

Solution
We can calculate the throughput as

The throughput is almost one-fifth of the bandwidth in

this case.
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Propagation & Transmission delay Propagation and Transmission Delay

 Propagation speed - speed at which a bit  Propagation Delay = Distance/Propagation speed

travels though the medium from source to
 Transmission Delay = Message size/bandwidth bps
destination.
 Transmission speed - The rate at which data  Latency = Propagation delay + Transmission delay +
are moved across a communications Queueing time + Processing time
channel.

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Example 3.45 Example 3.46

What is the propagation time if the distance between the What are the propagation time and the transmission
two points is 12,000 km? Assume the propagation speed time for a 2.5-kbyte message (an e-mail) if the
to be 2.4 × 108 m/s in cable. bandwidth of the network is 1 Gbps? Assume that the
distance between the sender and the receiver is 12,000
Solution km and that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.
We can calculate the propagation time as
Solution
We can calculate the propagation and transmission time
as shown on the next slide:
The example shows that a bit can go over the Atlantic
Ocean in only 50 ms if there is a direct cable between the
source and the destination.
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Example 3.46 (continued) Example 3.47

What are the propagation time and the transmission

time for a 5-Mbyte message (an image) if the bandwidth
of the network is 1 Mbps? Assume that the distance
between the sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and
that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.

Note that in this case, because the message is short and Solution
the bandwidth is high, the dominant factor is the We can calculate the propagation and transmission
propagation time, not the transmission time. The times as shown on the next slide.
transmission time can be ignored.

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Example 3.47 (continued) Figure 3.31 Filling the link with bits for case 1

Note that in this case, because the message is very long

and the bandwidth is not very high, the dominant factor
is the transmission time, not the propagation time. The
propagation time can be ignored.

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Example 3.48 Figure 3.32 Filling the link with bits in case 2

We can think about the link between two points as a

pipe. The cross section of the pipe represents the
bandwidth, and the length of the pipe represents the
delay. We can say the volume of the pipe defines the
bandwidth-delay product, as shown in Figure 3.33.

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Note

The bandwidth-delay product defines

the number of bits that can fill the link.

Concept of bandwidth-delay product

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