TOPIC: 3.

2 PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
ENDURING UNDERSTANDING:
SAP-4 Intermolecular forces can explain the physical properties of a material.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE:
SAP-5.B Explain the relationship among the macroscopic properties of a substance, the particulate-level structure of
the substance, and the interactions between these particles.

ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE:
SAP-5.B.1 Many properties of liquids and solids are determined by the strengths and types of intermolecular forces
present. Because intermolecular interactions are broken when a substance vaporizes, the vapor pressure and
boiling point are directly related to the strength of those interactions. Melting points also tend to correlate
with interaction strength, but because the interactions are only rearranged, in melting, the relations can be
more subtle.

SAP-5.B.2 Particulate-level representations, showing multiple interacting chemical species, are a useful means to
communicate or understand how intermolecular interactions help to establish macroscopic properties.

SAP-5.B.3 Due to strong interactions between ions, ionic solids tend to have low vapor pressures, high melting points,
and high boiling points. They tend to be brittle due to the repulsion of like charges caused when one layer
slides across another layer. They conduct electricity only when the ions are mobile, as when the ionic solid is
melted or dissolved in water or another solvent.

SAP-5.B.4 In covalent network solids, the atoms are covalently bonded together into a three dimensional network (e.g.,
diamond) or layers of two-dimensional networks (e.g., graphite). These are only formed from nonmetals:
elemental (e.g., diamond, graphite) or binary compounds of two nonmetals (e.g., silicon dioxide and silicon
carbide). Due to the strong covalent interactions, covalent solids have high melting points. Three-dimensional
network solids are also rigid and hard, because the covalent bond angles are fixed. However, graphite is soft
because adjacent layers can slide past each other relatively easily.

SAP-5.B.5 Molecular solids are composed of distinct, individual units of covalently-bonded molecules attracted to each
other through relatively weak intermolecular forces. Molecular solids generally have a low melting point
because of the relatively weak intermolecular forces present between the molecules. They do not conduct
electricity because their valence electrons are tightly held within the covalent bonds and the lone pairs of each
constituent molecule. Molecular solids are sometimes composed of very large molecules or polymers.

SAP-5.B.6 Metallic solids are good conductors of electricity and heat, due to the presence of free valence electrons. They
also tend to be malleable and ductile, due to the ease with which the metal cores can rearrange their structure.
In an interstitial alloy, interstitial atoms tend to make the lattice more rigid, decreasing malleability and
ductility. Alloys typically retain a sea of mobile electrons and so remain conducting.

SAP-5.B.7 In large biomolecules or polymers, noncovalent interactions may occur between different molecules or
between different regions of the same large biomolecule. The functionality and properties of such molecules
depend strongly on the shape of the molecule, which is largely dictated by noncovalent interactions.

EQUATION(S):
N/A
NOTES:
There are 4 basic types of solids:

1) Ionic Solids
2) Covalent Network Solids
3) Molecular Solids
4) Metallic Solids

Solids are classified by what type of component occupies the lattice points. A lattice is a 3-dimensional system of
points designating the positions of the centers of the components of a solid (atoms, ions, or molecules).

Many properties of liquids and solids are determined by the strengths and types of intermolecular forces present.

Ionic Solids:

Ionic solids have ions at the points of the lattice that describes the structure of the solid.
Due to strong interactions between ions, ionic solids tend to have low vapor pressures, high melting points,
and high boiling points.
The attraction between the positive and negative ion is known as an electrostatic attraction and can
be described by Coulomb s Law.
According to Coulomb s Law smaller ions & or ions with higher charges will have stronger attractions
between the ions resulting in higher lattice energy values.
They tend to be brittle due to the repulsion of like charges caused when one layer slides across another
layer.
They conduct electricity only when the ions are mobile, as when the ionic solid is melted (molten) or
dissolved in water or another solvent.
They are generally between a metal cation and a non-metal anion, though there are some nonmetal cations.

https://useruploads.socratic.org/YAnBNjUQTgiPgfUab0Ne_Ionic_Bonding.jpg
Covalent Network Solids:

Covalent network solids have atoms at the lattice points with strong directional covalent bonds to
form a solid that might best be viewed as a giant molecule
These are only formed from nonmetals: elemental (e.g., diamond, graphite) or binary compounds of two
nonmetals (e.g., silicon dioxide and silicon carbide).
Types of atoms seen at lattice points in covalent network solids: Carbon (diamond & graphite), silicon
dioxide, silicon carbide, and other non-metal/non-metal combinations (with B or Ge)
To melt covalent network solids, covalent bonds must be broken. Because covalent bonds are relatively
strong, covalent network solids are typically characterized by hardness, strength, and high melting points.
Three-dimensional network solids are also rigid and hard (brittle), because the covalent bond angles are
fixed.

For Carbon-containing covalent network solids: (carbon is the basis for biological compounds)

Diamond: carbon atoms form tetrahedral shaped covalent bonds which form a three-dimensional network,
hard, basically colorless, insulator, high melting point
Graphite: carbon atoms form two-dimensional networks which consist of layers (within each layer strong
covalent bonds are formed & between each layer weak London Dispersion forces form and hold the layers
together), slippery, black, a conductor (within the plane), soft (because adjacent layers can slide past each
other relatively easily when the LDF s are broken high melting point

For Silicon-containing covalent network solids: (silicon is the basis for geological molecules)

Silica (SiO2): consists of many of SiO4 molecules in tetrahedral shape

Glass: consists of an amorphous solid (solid with considerable disorder among components) that is
produced when SiO2 is heated
Silicon carbide (SiC) is the only chemical compound of carbon and silicon, is an excellent abrasive (used to
make sand paper)

https://nigerianscholars.com/assets/uploads/2018/08/CNX_Chem_10_05_NtwrkSolid.jpg
Molecular Solids:

Molecular solids are composed of distinct, individual units of covalently-bonded molecules attracted to
each other through relatively weak intermolecular forces. (aka they have molecules at lattice points)
The molecules used to form molecular solids are, by definition, composed of nonmetals atoms covalently
bonded together.
Molecular solids generally have a low melting point because of the relatively weak intermolecular forces
present between the molecules.
They do not conduct electricity because their valence electrons are tightly held within the covalent bonds
and the lone pairs of each constituent molecule.
Molecular solids are sometimes composed of very large molecules or polymers.

Example of Molecular solid held together w/hydrogen bonds:

o Ice (H2O)

https://www.chemtube3d.com/ss-ice/

Examples of Molecular solid held together w LDF s

o Dry ice (CO2), iodine (I2), sulfur (S8), phosphorous (P4), hydrocarbons (CxHy), polymers

https://i.ytimg.com/vi/msfUOCKLipw/maxresdefault.jpg
Metallic Solids:

Metallic solids consist of metallic crystals with spherical metal atoms packed together and bonded to each
other equally in all directions
A metallic bond is considered to be a close packed lattice of positive atoms ions surrounded by a sea of
moving electrons
The movement of the electrons cause metals to be good conductors of heat and electricity
The close packed atoms/ions allow for metals to be malleable and ductile, due to the ease with which the
metal atoms/ions can rearrange their structure.

https://chem.libretexts.org/@api/deki/files/61012/94d3d9c54b178fd573109542172cc1c7.jpg?revision=1

Metal Alloys: mixture of metals

Alloys keep a sea of electrons so they will still conduct

Some alloys form a chemically inert oxide layer on the surface (ex: stainless steel)
There are two main types of alloys:
o Substitutional Alloy:
An atom of similar size substitutes for another atom in lattice
Since the atoms have similar radii, the density of the alloy falls between the density values
of the two metals
Alloy remains malleable and ductile
Example: 14k gold (Ag atoms replace some of the Au atoms)
o Interstitial Alloy:
A smaller atom fills the space between larger atoms
Since the atoms have different radii, the interstitial atoms tend to make the lattice more
rigid, decreasing malleability and ductility.
Example: steel (C atoms fit between Fe atoms)

https://www.unf.edu/~michael.lufaso/chem2046/2046chapter12.pdf
Biomolecules & Polymers:

In large biomolecules or polymers, noncovalent interactions may occur between different molecules or
between different regions of the same large biomolecule.
The functionality and properties of such molecules depend strongly on the shape of the molecule, which is
largely dictated by noncovalent interactions.

https://files.mtstatic.com/site_4334/177026/0?Expires=1598793962&Signature=Qp0NobSIoeoEedi0FoW7AkD0u6oKFb1Xv
uxlGgnh4vNbtzYdjSTR2zp4wNGFRl4tif4kotz-S~GTJ-bXp7b5~y2abKY0Ya80TXH9QvUEjL6s9-
hYhSyfFuC4WEARCM58hIDcsmJoadJpdggckX-uxyuPB4K6yILcVqUZTh53CNk_&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJ5Y6AV4GI7A555NA
If you look at the protein above, you can find areas where two parts of the same strand are attracted
through hydrogen-bonding. This forms the secondary structure of the biomolecule and gives it a folded
shape.

These types of intramolecular forces give DNA molecules their structure.

SUMMARY TABLES*:
Types of Solids

Properties of Solids

The general order of increasing strength of interactions in a solid is:

molecular solids ionic solids ≈ metallic solids covalent solids
*https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Chemistry_-
_The_Central_Science_(Brown_et_al.)/11%3A_Liquids_and_Intermolecular_Forces/11.8%3A_Bonding_in_Solids
I DO:
CO2 melts at -78oC and SiO2 melts at 1,650oC.
a) Identify the type of solid each substance forms.
CO2 molecular solid & SiO2 Covalent Network

b) Justify the difference in melting points.

CO2 i a ec a id he ef e he i e IMF a e bei g b ke . The e
are the weakest forces so very little energy is required to melt which results in a very
low boiling point. SiO2 is a covalent network solid therefore when it melts covalent
bonds must be broken. Covalent bonds require a large amount of energy to be
broken which results in a very high boiling point.

WE DO:
Classify Cl2 , Ni , BN , and FeS as ionic, molecular, covalent network , or metallic
solids and arrange them in order of increasing melting points.

YOU DO:
1) Match the following descriptions with one of the four types of solids:

Metallic atoms with very loose electrons for a lattice of nuclei held together by a sea of electrons,
Metallic or metallic bonds.
Nonmetal atoms form molecules with covalent bonds. The molecules are held together in a solid
Molecular by intermolecular forces of attraction.
Metal and nonmetal atoms form a lattice of alternating positive and negative ions held together
Ionic by ionic bonds

covalent Nonmetal atoms form a lattice structure held together with covalent bonds.
network
2) For each type of solid, indicate the type of attractive forces that are broken upon melting, and describe the
individual particles that make up the resulting liquid. The types of bonds/forces: covalent bonds, ionic bonds,
metallic bonds, and intermolecular forces. The types of individual particles: atoms, ions, and molecules.
Type of Solid Bonds/forces broken Individual particles
upon melting in the liquid

Ionic
1 coulombic attraction 10ns
Covalent Network
ionic bonds

Molecular
covalent bonds atoms
intermolecularforces molecules
Metallic
metallic attractions atoms
 3) The binding forces in each solid are responsible for certain properties associated with each type of solid.

Type of Solid Example(s) Properties

Ionic

Molecular

Covalent Network

Metallic

4) If a particular solid had very strong attractive forces, would you expect the melting point of that solid to be
relatively high or relatively low? Explain your reasoning.

5) Explain why covalent network solids melt at a much higher temperature than molecular solids.

6) What type of solid will each of the following substances form?

a)CH4

b)I2

c) graphite

d)KCl

e)C6H12O6

f)CaBr2

g)SiC

h) Au
7) The melting point of HBr is -87oC and the melting point of NaBr is 747oC.

a) Identify the type of solid in each substance.

b) Justify the difference in their melting points.