Republic of the Philippines

CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE

F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

CE 108 – Hydraulics 2nd Sem. AY. 2024-2025

Chapter 1
FLUID PROPERTIES
Fluid definition and the systems of units; Mass Density; Specific Weight; Specific Gravity; Viscosity; Vapor Pressure; Surface
Tension; Capillarity; Bulk Modulus of Elasticity

Fluid Definition and the Systems of Units

turbulence in flow. Real fluids are further divided into
Fluid mechanics is a branch of mechanics dealing Newtonian and Non-Newtonian fluids.
with properties of fluids in various stages and with their In the British Engineering System of Units (FPS), the
reaction to forces upon them. Fluid mechanics is subdivided fundamental mechanical dimensions are length, force, and
into fluid statics which deals with fluids at rest, and fluid time. The corresponding fundamental units are the foot (ft) of
dynamics which is concerned with fluids in motion. length, pound (lb) of force (or pound weight), and second (sec)
Hydrodynamics is applied to the flow of liquids or of time. All other units can be derived from these. Thus, unit
low-velocity gas flows where the gas can be considered as volume is the ft3, unit acceleration is the ft/sec2, unit work is
being essentially incompressible. the ft-lb, and unit pressure is the lb/ft2.
Hydraulics is the application of fluid mechanics to In the SI, the fundamental mechanical dimensions
engineering devices involving liquids, and deals with problems are length, mass (unlike the British system), and time. The
such as flow through pipes and open channels, design of corresponding fundamental units are meter (m), kilogram (kg),
dams, pumps, and water turbines, and other devices such as and second (s). In terms of these, unit volume is the m3, unit
nozzles, valves, jets, and flow meters. acceleration the m/s2, and unit (mass) density the kg/m3.

Ideal Fluids Psuedoplastic Fluids

Newtonian Fluids
(viscosity decreases with
Fluids (has constant viscosity; flow is increasing shear rate; ex.
predictable and consistent)1. ketchup, blood, paint)
Real Fluids
Non-Newtonian Fluids Dilatant Fluids
(viscosity is changes when shear (viscosity increases with
stress is applied; flow is more increasing shear rate; ex.
complex and difficult to predict) cornstarch slurry; quicksand)

Bingham Fluids
(behaves like solid until a certain
yield stress is exceed ex. butter,
toothpaste, some types of mud)

Fluids are substances that are capable of flowing and

conform to the shape of containing vessels. When in Conversion Factors
equilibrium, fluids cannot sustain tangential or shear forces. ▪ 1 cubic foot = 7.48 U.S. gallons = 28.32 liters
All fluids have some degree of compressibility and offer little ▪ 1 U.S. gallon = 8.338 pounds of water at 60°F
resistance to change of form. ▪ 1 cubic foot per second = 0.646 million gallons per day =
Fluids can be classified as liquids or gases. The chief 448.8 gallons per minute
differences between liquids and gases are (a) liquids are ▪ 1 pound-second per square foot (µ) = 478.7 poises
practically incompressible whereas gases are compressible ▪ 1 square foot per second (v) = 0.0929 square meter per
and usually must be so treated and (b) liquids occupy definite second
volumes and have free surfaces whereas a given mass of gas ▪ 1 horsepower = 550 foot-pounds per second = 0.746
expands until it occupies all portions of any containing vessel. kilowatt
Fluids are generally divided into ideal fluids and real ▪ 30 inches of mercury = 34 feet of water = 14.7 pounds per
fluids. Ideal fluids are a) assumed to have no viscosity; b) square inch
incompressible; c) have uniform velocity when flowing; d) no ▪ 762 millimeters of mercury = 10.4 meters of water = 101.3
friction between moving layers of fluids; and e) no eddy kilopascals
currents or turbulence. On the other hand, real fluids a) exhibit
infinite viscosities; b) have non-uniform velocity distribution
when flowing; c) compressible; and d) experience friction and
 Republic of the Philippines
CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE
F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Mass Density, ρ pressure changes (temperature constant), the kinematic

viscosity varies inversely as the pressure.
The mass per unit volume of a fluid.
For solids and liquids,
𝑴 𝜸 1. Calculate the specific weight, specific volume, and density ρ of
𝝆= =
𝑽 𝒈 methane at 100°F and 120 psi absolute.
(kg/m3 or slugs/ft3) 2. If 6m3 of oil weighs 47kN, calculate its specific weight, density,
ρw =1.94 slugs/ft3 = 1000 kg/m3 (at 4°C) and specific gravity.
3. At 90°F and 30.0 psi absolute the volume per unit weight of a
For an ideal gas, certain gas was 11.4 ft /lb. Determine its gas constant R and
𝒑 the density ρ.
𝝆=
𝑹𝑻 4. From the International Critical Tables, the viscosity of water
at 20°C (68°F) is 1.008cp (centipoises). Compute the absolute
The specific volume is simply the volume occupied by a unit viscosity in lb-sec/ft2; if the specific gravity at 20°C is 0.998,
mass of fluid. compute the kinematic viscosity in ft2/sec.
5. Convert 15.14 poises to ft2/sec if the liquid has a specific
Specific Weight or Unit Weight, γ gravity of 0.964.

The specific (or unit) weight γ of a substance is the weight of

a unit volume of the substance.
Vapor Pressure
For liquids, When evaporation takes place within an enclosed space, the
𝑾 partial pressure created by the vapor molecules is called
𝜸= = 𝝆𝒈
𝑽 vapor pressure. Vapor pressures depend upon temperature
(lb/ft3, pcf, kN/m3) and increase with it.
γw = 62.4 lb/ft3 = 9.81 kN/m3
Surface Tension

Specific Gravity A molecule in the interior of a liquid is under attractive forces

in all directions, and the vector sum of these forces is zero.
The dimensionless ratio of the weight of the body to the weight But a molecule at the surface of a liquid is acted on by a net
of an equal volume of a substance taken as a standard. For inward cohesive force that is perpendicular to the surface.
solids and liquids, they are referred to water (at 68°F = 20°C) Hence it requires work to move molecules to the surface
as standard, while gases are often referred to air free of against this opposing force, and surface molecules have more
carbon dioxide or hydrogen (at 32°F = 0°C and 1 atmosphere energy than interior ones.
= 14.7 lb/in2 = 101.3kPa pressure) as standard.
The surface tension, σ (sigma) of a liquid is the work that must
𝒚𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝝆𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 be done to bring enough molecules from inside the liquid to
𝑺𝑮 = =
𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝝆𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒅 the surface to form one new unit area of that surface.
(N/m or lb/ft)

The (gage) pressure inside a droplet of a liquid is

Viscosity 𝟒𝝈
𝒑=
𝒅
A fluid property that determines the amount of its resistance Where d is the diameter of the droplet.
to a shearing force. Viscosity is due primarily to the interaction
between fluid molecules.
𝝉 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 Capillarity
𝝁= =
𝒅𝑽 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝒅𝒚 The rise or fall of liquid in a capillary tube (or in porous media)
(Pa · s or lb-sec/ft2) is caused by surface tension and depends on the relative
Another viscosity coefficient, the coefficient of kinematic magnitudes of the cohesion of the liquid and the adhesion of
viscosity, is defined as the liquid to the walls of the containing vessel. Liquids rise in
𝝁 tubes they wet (adhesion > cohesion) and fall in tubes they do
𝒗=
𝝆 not wet (cohesion > adhesion). Capillarity is important when
(m2/s or ft2/s) using tubes smaller than about 3/8-inch (10 mm) in diameter.
1 poise = 1 dyne-sec/cm2 = 0.1 Pa-s (1 dyne = 10-5N) For tube diameters larger than ½ in (12 mm), capillary effects
1 stoke = 0.0001m2/s are negligible.
𝟒𝝈 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
𝒉=
Viscosities of liquids decrease with temperature increases but 𝜸𝒅
are not affected appreciably by pressure changes. The Where:
absolute viscosity of gases increases with the increase in h = height of capillary rise (or depression)
temperature but is not appreciably changed by changes in θ = wetting angle
pressure. Since the specific weight of gases changes with γ = specific weight of liquid
d = diameter of tube
 Republic of the Philippines
CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE
F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

If the tube is clean, θ is 0° for water and about 140° for

mercury.

Bulk Modulus of Elasticity

The bulk modulus of elasticity (E) expresses the

compressibility of a fluid. It is the ratio of the change in unit
pressure to the corresponding volume change per unit of
volume.
𝒅𝒑
𝑬=
−𝒅𝒗/𝒗
(Pa or lb/in2)
Because a pressure increase, dp, results in a decrease in
fractional volume, dv/v, the minus is inserted to render E
positive.

Pressure disturbances

Pressure disturbances imposed on a fluid move in waves. The

velocity or celerity of pressure wave (also known as acoustical
or sonic velocity) is expressed as:
𝑬
𝒄= √
𝝆

6. A cylinder of 0.122-m radius rotates concentrically inside a

fixed cylinder of 0.128-m radius. Both cylinders are 0.305m
long. Determine the viscosity of the liquid that fills the space
between the cylinders if a torque of 0.881 N-m is required to
maintain an angular velocity of 60 revolutions per minute.
7. A small drop of water at 80°F is in contact with the air and has
a diameter of 0.02 in. If the pressure within the droplet is 0.082
psi greater than the atmosphere, what is the value of the surface
tension?
8. A needle 35 mm long rests on a water surface at 20°C. What
force over and above the needle's weight is required to lift the
needle from contact with the water surface?
9. Calculate the approximate depression of mercury at 20°C in a
capillary tube of radius 1.5 mm. The surface tension (σ) for
mercury is 0.514 N/m at 20°, and its specific weight is 133.1
kN/m3.
10. Estimate the height to which water at 70°F will rise in a
capillary tube of diameter 0.120 in.
 Republic of the Philippines
CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE
F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
 Republic of the Philippines
CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE
F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING