Unit-I

Introduction and Components of a Protection System

Need of Protection System:

➢ If a fault occurs in an element of a power system, an automatic protective device is needed to
isolate the faulty element as quickly as possible to keep the healthy section of the system in
normal operation.
➢ Due to heavy short circuit, the system voltage may reduce to a low level and individual generators
in power station or groups of generators in different power stations may lose synchronism. Thus,
an uncleared heavy short circuit may cause the total failure of the system.
➢ A protective system includes circuit breakers and protective relay to isolate the faulty section of
the system from the healthy sections.
➢ The function of a protective relay is to detect and locate a fault and generate a signal to the circuit
breaker to disconnect the faulty element of the system.
➢ Protection is needed not only against short circuits fault but also against any other abnormal
conditions which may arise on a power system (Example: overspeed of generators and motors,
over-voltage and under-voltage, over-frequency and under-frequency, overheating of stator and
rotor of an alternator, loss of excitation etc.).
➢ Protective relays are also provided to detect such abnormal conditions and generate alarm signal
to trip circuit breaker.

Nature and causes of faults:

➢ Faults are caused either by insulation failures or by conducting path failures. The failures of the
insulation results in short circuit which are very harmful as they may damage some equipment
of the power system.
➢ Most of the faults on transmission lines and distribution lines are caused by over-voltages due to
lightning or switching surges or by external conducting objects falling on overhead lines.
➢ Over-voltages due to lightening or switching surges caused flashover on the surface of insulators
resulting in short circuits
 ➢ Short circuit are also caused by tree branches or other conducting object falling on the overhead
lines which lead to the failure of conducting path.
➢ Unbalanced current flowing in rotating machines set-up harmonics, thereby heating the machine
in short periods of time.
➢ In case of cables, transformers, generators and other equipment, the causes of faults are: failure
of the insulation due to aging, heat, moisture, over-voltage, mechanical damage, accidental
contact with earth, flashover due to over-voltages etc.
Consequences of Faults:
The most serious result of a major uncleared fault is fire which may not only destroy the
equipment of its origin but may spread in the system and cause total failure. The most common type of
fault which is also the most dangerous one is the short circuit which may have any of the following
consequences:
1. A great reduction of the line voltage over a major part of the power system. This will lead to the
breakdown of the electrical supply to the consumer and may produce wastage in production.
2. Damage caused to the elements of the system by the electrical arc which almost always
accompanies a short circuit.
3. Damage to other apparatus in the system due to overheating and due to abnormal mechanical
forces setup.
4. Disturbances to the stability of the electrical system and this may eve lead to a complete
shutdown of the power system.
5. A marked reduction in the voltage which may sometimes be so great that relays having pressure
coils tend to fail.
6. Considerable reduction in the voltage on healthy feeders connected to the system having fault.
This may cause either an abnormally high current being drawn by the motors or the operation of
no-voltage coils of the motors. In the latter case considerable loss of industrial production may
result as the motors will have to be restarted.
Fault Statistics:
It is useful to have some idea of the frequency of the incidence of faults on the different items of
equipment in a power system. This information is of help in considering the problems of design and
application of protection. The table below gives an idea of how faults are distributed in the various
sections of a power system.
Frequency of fault occurrence in different links of a power system
Sl. No. Equipment Name Fault occurrence (%)
1. Overhead lines 50
2. Switchgear 15
3. Transformers 12
4. Cables 10
5. Control Equipment 3
6. CTs and PTs 2
7. Miscellaneous 8
It is of interest to note that faults on overhead lines account for nearly half of the total number of
faults. It would be worthwhile therefore, to analyse the nature of faults on the overhead lines, On a
three phase system the breakdown of insulation between one of the phases and earth is known as
line to ground fault or a single phase earth fault, the breakdown of insulation between either of the
two phases is known as line to line fault, the breakdown of insulation between two phases and earth
is known as double line to ground fault, and the breakdown of insulation between the three phases
is known as three phase fault. The table below shows frequency of different types of faults occurring
in overhead lines.
 Classification of faults in overhead lines:
1. Open circuit fault
2. Short circuit fault
Symmetrical faults
Three-phase fault (LLL/LLLG)
Unsymmetrical faults
Single phase to ground fault (LG)
Phase to phase fault (LL)
Double phase to ground fault (LLG)

Frequency of different types of faults occurring in overhead lines

Sl. No. Type of fault Fault occurrence (%)
1. LG 85
2. LL 8
3. LLG 5
4. LLL 2

Essential Qualities of Protection (Basic Requirement or Basic Functional

Characteristics of Protective System:
Every protective system which isolates a faulty element is required to satisfy four basic
requirements:
(i) Reliability
(ii) Selectivity
(iii) Speed / Fastness of operation
(iv) Sensitivity / Discrimination.
Without reliability and selectivity, the protection would be rendered largely ineffective and could even
become a liability.

RELIABILITY:
➢ A production system must operate reliably when a fault occurs in its zone of protection to achieve
a high degree of reliability, greater attention should be given to the design, installation,
maintenance and testing of the various elements of the protective system. Robustness and
simplicity of the relaying equipment also contribute to reliability. The contact pressure, the
contact material of the relay and the prevention of the contact are also very important from
reliability point of view. The proper maintenance also plays an important role in improving the
reliable operation of the system.

SELECTIVITY:
➢ This is the property by which only the faulty element of the system is isolated and the remaining
healthy sections are left intact. Selectivity is absolute if the protection responds only to faults
within its own zone, and relative if it is obtained by grading the settings of the protections of
several zones all of which may respond to a given fault.
➢ Systems of protection which in principle are absolutely selective are known as unit systems,
Systems in which selectivity is relative are non-unit systems. Examples: differential protection,
frame leakage protection, current time graded protection and distance protection.
SPEED:
➢ Protective relays are required to be quick acting due to the following reasons:
(a) Critical clearing time should not be exceeded.
(b) Electrical apparatus may be damaged if they are made to carry fault currents for long.
(c) A persistent fault will lower the voltage resulting in crawling and over loading of industrial
drives.
➢ The shorter the time a fault is allowed to persist the more load can be transferred between given
points on the power system without loss of synchronism.
➢ On the other hand, relays should not be made extremely fast, i.e., less than 10 milliseconds. This
is because when there is any lightning surge on the line the surge diverters must have sufficient
time to discharge the lightning to the ground. Otherwise, the relay will operate unnecessarily for
transient conditions.

SENSITIVITY / DISCRIMINATION:
➢ Protection must be sufficiently sensitive to operate reliably under minimum fault conditions for a
fault within its own Zone while remaining stable under maximum load or through fault conditions.
A relay should be able to distinguish between a fault and an overload. In the case of transformers,
the inrush of magnetizing current may be comparable to the fault current, being 5 to 7 times the
full load current. The relay should not operate for inrush currents. In interconnected systems, there
will be power swings, which should also be ignored by the relay. This discrimination between
faults and overcurrent may either be an inherent characteristic of the relay or may be achieved by
connecting auxiliary devices like the minimum voltage relay. It may be noted that the word
discrimination is sometimes used to include selectivity.

Components of Protection System:

1. Relays:
➢ The main function of a protective relay is to isolate a faulty section with the least interruption
to service by controlling the circuit breaker, when abnormal conditions develop. Thus, the relays
may be designed to detect and to measure abnormal conditions and close the contacts in the
tripping circuit.
➢ The following two categories of relays are most commonly used in protective relaying:
(a) Secondary indirect-acting relays: a group including practically all kinds of relays, e.g.,
current, voltage, power, impedance, reactance and frequency, whether minimum or maximum.
(b) Secondary direct-acting relays: a group of overcurrent and under-voltage relays designed
to operate instantaneously or with time lag. These are primarily relays of the electromagnetic
type which are built into circuit breaker operating mechanisms.

2. Instrument Transformers
i.) Current Transformers (CTs)
➢ The primary circuit currents which are of high-magnitudes are to be reduced to values
suitable for relay operation with the help of current transformers (CTs). Thus, the CTs
essentially insulate the secondary (relay) circuits from the primary (power) circuits and
provide currents in the secondary which are proportional to those in the primary. The
primary winding of the CT is connected in series with the load and carries the actual
power system currents (normal or fault). The secondary is connected to the measuring
circuit or the relay, which together with the winding impedance of the transformer and
the lead resistance constitutes the burden of the transformer.
 ➢ It is common practice to use 1A secondary rating CTs. There is a practical limit to the
number of turns which can be wound on the bar primary CT which is usually about 1500
secondary turns. When rated primary currents much in excess of 1500 A are encountered
then the main bar primary CT with rated secondary current of 5A or 10A along with
auxiliary CTs of 5/1 or 10/l A respectively, are used.

ii.) Potential Transformers (PTs) / Voltage Transformers (VTs)

➢ It is not possible to connect the voltage coils of the protective devices directly to the
system in case of high voltage systems. It is therefore necessary to step down the voltage
and also to insulate the protective equipment from the primary (power) circuit. This is
achieved by using a voltage transformer (VT) also known as a potential transformer (PT)
which is similar to a power transformer. The voltage transformer is rated in terms of the
maximum burden (VA output) it delivers without exceeding specified limits of error,
whereas the power transformer is rated by the secondary output it delivers without
exceeding a specified temperature rise. The output of VTs is usually limited to a few
hundred volts amperes and the secondary voltage is usually 110 V between phases.
 3. Circuit Breakers
➢ Circuit breakers of various types are installed in all power circuits to open and close them under
normal load conditions. Circuit breakers must correspond to nominal current and voltage rating
and MVA breaking capacity to the load and fault power conditions at the given point of the circuit
where they are incorporated. To isolate a fault from the power system one or more circuit breakers
are required in conjunction with the protection.
➢ Circuit breakers may be operated either manually or automatically. For our consideration here we
will assume that it is controlled by a protective relay, so that when opening (tripping) is required a
trip coil is energized, which releases energy stored in the mechanism thus causing the main
contacts to part. The relay usually closes its contacts directly or via an auxiliary relay to close the
trip coil circuit through a battery thus energizing the trip coil. When more than one breaker is to
be tripped or where the trip coil current exceeds the relay-contact rating, auxiliary relay of proper
contact rating must be used.
➢ While closing the trip coil circuit which is highly inductive the duty on the relay contacts is not so
severe; but while breaking the trip coil considerable damage would be done to these contacts. In
order to overcome this difficulty an auxiliary switch operated by a mechanical link mechanism of
the circuit breaker is connected in series with the trip coil and relay contacts. This auxiliary switch
opens when the breaker contacts open. This action, however, takes place before the contacts of the
relay open. This ensures that any inductance voltage would appear across the auxiliary contacts
only and not across the relay contacts. The latter are thus saved from any possibility of burning.
➢ The time of operation of circuit breaker actually depends on its design and usually lies between
0.05 and 0.25s. This must be accounted for while calculating final fault clearance time.

Zone of Protection:
➢ Various zones are shown above for a typical power system. It can be seen that the adjacent zones
overlap so that no part of the system remains unprotected, otherwise there could be some portion
which is left out and remains unprotected. At the same time, it must be realized that if the fault
takes place in the overlapped portion, more than the minimum number of circuit breakers will trip,
causing a major dislocation to the system. Each of the zones may be implemented using a different
relaying principle. All the zones, in practice, may not be as well marked out as they are shown in
the figure and may contract or expand depending upon the various system conditions.
Primary and Back-up Protection:
➢ The primary protection may fail. This could be due to failure of the CT/VT or relay, or failure of
the circuit breaker. One of the possible causes of the circuit breaker failure is the failure of the trip-
battery due to inadequate maintenance. We must have a second line of defence in such a situation.
Therefore, it is a normal practice to provide another zone of protection (Back-up protection) which
should operate and isolate the faulty element in case the primary protection fails.
➢ A little thought will convince the reader that the back-up protection should not have anything in
common with the primary protection. It should also preferably be located at a place different from
where the primary protection is located. Further, the back-up protection must wait for the primary
protection to operate, before issuing the trip command to its associated circuit breakers. In other
words, the operating time of the back-up protection must be delayed by an appropriate amount
over that of the primary protection. Thus, the operating time of the hack-up protection should be
equal to the operating time of primary protection plus the operating time of the primary circuit
breaker.

Basic Principle of Operation of Protective System:

Each relay in a protection scheme performs a certain function and responds in a given manner to
a certain type of change in the circuit quantities. For example, one type of relay may operate when the
current increases above a certain magnitude, while another may compare current and voltage and operate
when the ratio V/I is less than a given value. The first relay is known as an overcurrent relay while the
latter an under-impedance relay. Similarly various combinations of these electrical quantities could be
worked out according to the requirements at a particular situation, because for every type and location
of failure there is some distinctive difference in these quantities, and there are various types of protective
relaying equipment available, each of which is designed to recognize a particular difference and to
operate in response to it.
 PART – I: RELAYS
Classification of Protective Relays:
Protective relays can be broadly classified into the following categories depending on the
technology they use for their construction and operation.

1.) Classification of protective relays based on working principle or

technology
1. Electromagnetic Relays
2. Static Relays
3. Thermal Relays
4. Digital / Numerical Relays
1. Electromagnetic Relays:
➢ It works on principle of electromagnetic induction. It includes attracted armature, moving coil,
induction disc and induction cup type relays.
➢ Electromagnetic relays contain an electromagnet or permanent and moving part.
➢ When the actuating quantity exceeds a certain predetermined value, an operating torque is
developed which is applied on the moving part.
➢ It causes the moving part to travel and to finally close a contact to energies the trip coil of the
circuit breaker.
2. Static Relay:
➢ Static relays as an electronic nature that differs from the mechanics of electromagnetic
switching which is built on moving parts for operation. While mechanical relays work with
some sort of mechanical action implemented through a mechanical contact circuit.
➢ static relays work on a static principle of employing solid-state components collectively called
semiconductor devices (Rectifiers/transistors/diodes, etc.) or digital logic circuits. This is a
solid-state design that gets rid of mechanical parts and as a result of this its reliability becomes
stronger, the response times become faster, and the precision becomes better.
3. Thermal Relay:
➢ A thermal overload-relay is a relay designed to protect electrical systems from overheated
conditions. It does not shut off power to the circuit but instead senses when the current has
reached a high enough level and opens, allowing the motor to continue to run.
➢ Thermal overload relays protect motors, transformers, and other electrical devices from
overheating. These relays are often installed at points where there is an electric circuit with
several devices on it. If one of these devices overheats, it can cause damage to itself or other parts
of this circuit.
4. Digital / Numerical relay:
➢ A digital / Numerical relay is a modern type of protective device used in power systems to detect
electrical faults. Unlike traditional mechanical relays, digital relays use software-based
algorithms and microprocessors to monitor electrical currents and identify abnormalities.
➢ This advanced technology allows for precise and quick reaction to a variety of fault conditions,
enhancing the safety and efficiency of electrical distribution systems.
➢ Digital relays are key in utility and industrial settings where reliable power distribution is critical.
They are also known as microprocessor type protective relays.
 2.) Classification of protective relays based on sensing parameter or
their function.
1. Over Current Relay
2. Directional Relay
3. Over Voltage and Under Voltage Relay
4. Over Flux and Under Flux Relay
5. Over Frequency and Under Frequency Relay
6. Over Flux and Under Flux Relay
7. Distance relay
8. Earth Fault Relay
9. Differential Relay
10. Buchholtz Relay
11. Negative Sequence Relay etc.

3.) Classification of protective relays based on speed or time of

operation.
1. Instantaneous Relay
2. Definite Time Relay
3. Inverse Definite Minimum Time Relay / IDMT Relay
4. Very Inverse Time Relay
5. Extremely Inverse Time Relay

Characteristics of Protective Relays

Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay

➢ The relay has no intentional time delay for operation. The contacts of the relay are closed instantly
when the current inside the relay rises beyond the operational value. The time interval between the
instant pick-up value and the closing contacts of the relay is very less.
➢ The most significant advantage of the instantaneous relay is that it has low operating time. It starts
operating instantly when the value of current is more than the relay setting. This relay operates
only when the impedance between the source and the relay is less than that provided in the section.
➢ The most important feature of the relay is their speed of operation. The relay protects the system
from earth fault and also used for protecting the system from circulating current. The instantaneous
overcurrent relay is placed in the outgoing feeder.
Definite Time Overcurrent Relay
➢ These relays operate after a predetermined time when the current exceeds its pick-up value. Here,
the operating time of the relay does not depend on the magnitude of the current above the pick-up
value. A time delay mechanism is provided to get desired operating time.
➢ They are used in applications where impedance ZS between the source and relay is small compared
with the impedance ZL of the section to be protected. They are also used to serve as a check against
short-time asymmetrical currents.

Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay

➢ The relay operates only when the magnitude of their operating current is inversely proportional to
the magnitude of the energize quantities. The operating time of relay decreases with the increases
in the current. The operation of the relay depends on the magnitude of the current
➢ The characteristic curve for the relay is shown in the figure below. The relay will not operate when
the value of current is less than the pick value. The relay is used for the protection of the
distribution lines. The inverse time relay is of three types.

Inverse Definite Minimum Time Relay

➢ The relay whose operating time is approximately proportional to the fault current is known as the
IDMT relay. The operating time of the relay is maintained by adjusting the time delay setting. The
IDMT relay uses the electromagnetic core because it can easily saturate for the current having
larger magnitude than pick up current. The relay is used for the protection of the distribution line.

Very Inverse Relay

➢ The inverse characteristic of the relay is more than the IDMT. Such type of relay is used in the
feeder and on long transmission lines. The relay is used in the places where there the magnitude
of the short-circuit current fall rapidly because of the large distance from the source. It is used for
sensing the fault current which is free from the fault location.

Extremely Inverse Relay

➢ The characteristic time of the relay is extremely large as compared to the IDMT and the Very
inverse relay. This relay is used for protecting the cable, transformer, etc. The relay can operate
instantly when the pickup value of the current is more than the relay setting time. The relay
provides faster operation even under the fault current. It is used for sensing the overheating of the
machines.
➢ The inverse time relay is used in the distribution networks and the power plants. The relay gives
the fast operation in the fault conditions because of their fault time characteristic.

Working of Electromagnetic Induction Disc Type Overcurrent Relay:

 ➢ The electromagnetic induction disc relay operates on the principle of electromagnetic
induction similar to an induction motor. The torque produced in these relays is by the
interaction of alternating flux with one of the magnets and eddy currents induced in the
rotor (disc) with the other alternating flux.
➢ The frequency of both the fluxes are same, but there will be a phase delay between them.
These relays thus operate only on AC circuits. In this relay, the moving element is a disc
on which the moving contact of the relay is fixed.
The torque produced by these two fluxes is given as:

Basic Terminology in Relays:

❖ Operating Force or Torque: A force or torque which tends to close the contacts of the relay.
❖ Restraining Force or Torque: A force or torque which opposes the operating torque and force.
❖ Pick-up Value: The threshold value of the actuating quantity (current, voltage, impedance etc.)
above which the relay operates.
❖ Current Setting (CS) / Plug Setting (PS): The pick-up value of the current can be adjusted to
the required value in the relay which is called current setting/plug setting of that relay. It is
achieved by use of tappings on the relay coil, which are brought out a plug bridge as shown in
below figure.

 The tap values are expressed in terms of percentage full load ratings of current transformer (CT)
with which relay is associated.
 Thus, the value of pick-up current can be given as:
Pick-up Current = % Current Setting X Rated CT Secondary Current
❖ Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM): The ratio of actual fault current in the relay coil to the pick-up
current is called plug setting multiplier (PSM). It can be expressed as:

𝑭𝒂𝒖𝒍𝒕 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝑭𝒂𝒖𝒍𝒕 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍/𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝑪𝑻 𝟐𝒏𝒅 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕
PSM = =
𝑷𝒊𝒄𝒌−𝒖𝒑 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 % 𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐒𝐞𝐭𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐗 𝐑𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝑪𝑻 𝐒𝐞𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐚𝐫𝐲 𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭
𝑷𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝑭𝒂𝒖𝒍𝒕 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 (𝑰𝑭 )
= 𝑪𝑻 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 𝑿 𝑷𝒊𝒄𝒌−𝒖𝒑 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
❖ Time Setting Multiplier (TSM): A relay is provided with a feature, with which its time of
operation can be controlled. This feature is known as time setting multiplier (TSM). Its dial is
calibrated from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.05 as shown in figure.

Actual time of operation = Operating Time (at TMS=1) X TSM

 PART – II: CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Arc Phenomenon in Circuit Breaker:

➢ When there is a fault or short circuit on the system, it causes to flow high current in the system
and also through the contacts of the circuit breaker. As the fault occurs the relay generate trip
signal for the circuit breaker to open its contacts.
➢ When the circuit breaker contacts begin to open, the contact area between the two contacts
decreases. Due to heavy inrush current, during separation, the current density increases
consequently and releasing heat at the contacts causing a temperature rise. The increase in
temperature results in the emission of electrons from the cathode.
➢ The air surrounding the breaker contacts already consist of electrons, positive ions, and neutral
molecules. During a fault condition, the emitted electrons from the cathode are sufficient to
ionize the air. This ionized air acts as a conductor and due to this, an arc is struck between the
two contacts. A small potential difference between the contacts is sufficient and can be
responsible for maintaining the arc.
➢ The arc struck between the contacts provides a path for current flow due to its low resistance and
thus the current in the circuit remains uninterrupted as long as the arc persists. Thus, it can be
seen that the current flow in the circuit depends upon the resistance of the arc.
In circuit breakers, the contact space is ionized by the following causes:
1. Thermal ionization of the gas.
2. Ionization by collision of particles.
3. Thermal emission from the surface of contacts.
4. Secondary emission from the surface of contacts.
5. Field emission from the surface of contacts.
During the arcing period, the current flowing between the contacts depends upon the arc
resistance. The greater the arc resistance, the smaller the current that flows between the
contacts. The arc resistance depends upon the following factors:
1. Degree of ionization: The arc resistance increases with the decrease in the number of ionized
particles between the contacts.
2. Length of the arc: The arc resistance increases with the length of the arc i.e., separation of
contacts.
3. Cross-section of arc: The arc resistance increases with the decrease in the area of the cross-
section of the arc.

Arc Interruption Methods in Circuit Breaker:

There are following methods of extinguishing the arc in circuit breakers.
1. Natural Current Zero or Low Resistance Interruption
2. Force Current Zero Interruption (Current Chopping)
3. High Resistance Interruption
1.) Natural Current Zero / Low Resistance Interruption:
➢ This method is used for arc extinction in AC circuits only. In this method, the arc resistance is
kept low until the current magnitude becomes zero where the arc extinction occurs naturally and
is prevented from restriking instead of the rising voltage across the contacts.
➢ In AC system, the current drops to zero after every half cycle. At every current zero, the arc
extinguishes for a brief moment. The medium between the contacts contains ions and electrons
so that they have small dielectric strength and can be easily broken down by the rising contact
voltage known as restriking voltage.
➢ If such a breakdown occurs, the arc will persist for another half cycle. If immediately after current
zero, the dielectric strength of the medium between the contacts is built up more rapidly than the
voltage across the contacts, the arc fails to restrike and the current will be interrupted.
The rapid increase of dielectric strength of the medium near current zero is achieved by:
(a) Increase the length of the gap: The dielectric strength of the medium is proportional to the length
of the contact gap. So, by opening the contacts rapidly, the higher dielectric strength of the medium can
be obtained.
(b) High pressure: If the pressure of ionized particles in the vicinity of the arc is increased, then the
density of the particles constituting the discharge also increases. This increased density of particles
causes a higher rate of de-ionization which increases the dielectric strength between the contacts.
(c) Cooling: Natural combination of ionized particles takes place more rapidly if they are allowed to
cool. So, in this way, the dielectric strength of the arc medium between the contacts can be increased by
cooling the arc.
(d) Blast effect: If ionized particles between the contacts are swept away and replaced by unionized
particles, the dielectric strength of the medium can be increased.

2.) Force Current Zero Interruption (Current Chopping):

➢ Current Chopping in circuit breaker is defined as a phenomenon in which current is force fully
interrupted before the natural current zero. Current Chopping is mainly observed in Vacuum
Circuit Breaker and Air Blast Circuit Breaker. There are no such phenomena in Oil Circuit
Breaker. Current chopping is predominant while switching Shunt Reactor or unloaded
Transformer.
➢ In Air Blast Circuit Breaker or Vacuum Circuit Breaker, the fault clearing capacity is fixed and
independent of the fault current level. In this case, when breaker is used to break the circuit of
unloaded transformer or shunt reactor, the current will be brought to zero well before the natural
current zero.
➢ This is because, the breaker is interrupting only the magnetizing current which is very less
compared to full load current or fault current. As the capability of breaker arc extinction is high
enough, therefore the low magnetizing current will be brought to zero before the natural current
zero position. This phenomenon is known as Current Chopping.
3.) High Resistance Interruption:
In high resistance interruption method, the arc resistance is made to increase gradually with time so that
the current is reduced to a value insufficient to maintain the arc. Consequently, the current is interrupted
and the arc is extinguished without creating any damage to the circuit breaker. The disadvantage of this
method is that enormous energy is dissipated in the arc. So, it is employed in DC circuit breaker and
low-capacity AC circuit breakers.
The following are the different ways to increase the resistance of the arc medium:
(a) Increase the length of the arc: The resistance of the arc is directly proportional to the length of the
arc. The length of the arc can be increased by increasing the gap between contacts.
(b) Arc cooling method: Cooling arc medium helps in the deionization of the medium between the
contacts. It increases arc resistance. Efficient cooling is obtained by a gas blast directed along the arc.
(c) Reducing the cross-section area of the area: If the area of the cross-section of the arc is reduced,
then the voltage necessary to maintain the arc is increased. So, the resistance of the arc path is increased.
The cross-section area of the arc can be reduced by letting the area pass through the smaller area of
contacts compared to a wide area.
(d) Arc splitting method: The resistance of the arc can be increased by splitting the arc into a number
of smaller arcs in series. Each of these arcs experiences the effect of lengthening and cooling. The arc
may be split by introducing some conducting plate between the contacts of the circuit breaker.
Rating of Circuit Breaker:
1. Nominal Voltage: Rated voltage of the circuit breaker is called nominal voltage.
2. Nominal Current: Rated current passing through the circuit breaker corresponding to rated
voltage is called nominal current.
3. Making Current: Maximum or peak value of load current passing through the circuit
breaker pole during closing of circuit breaker is called making current.
4. Breaking Current: The RMS value of current passing through the circuit breaker pole at
instant of opening the circuit breaker which is responsible for heating is called breaking
current.
5. Making Capacity and Breaking Capacity: MVA rating corresponding to making current
and breaking current is called making capacity and breaking capacity.

 Making Current (IMK) = Peak value of ICB

 Breaking Current (IBK) = RMS value of ICB
 IMK = 1.8*IBK (peak) = 1.8*√2*IBK
 IMK = 2.55*IBK
 Making Capacity (SMK) = √𝟑*VL*IMK (MVA)
 Breaking Capacity (SBK) = √𝟑*VL*IBK (MVA)
Making Capacity (SMK) = 2.55*Breaking Capacity (SBK)

6. Restriking / Transient Recovery Voltage (RV/TRV): When the circuit breaker interrupts
at the time of current zero, there will be a rapid increase in the voltage across the circuit
breaker contacts. The voltage that appears will be transient in nature and it is known as
restriking recovery voltage.
7. Recovery Voltage: The voltage that appears across the contacts after the final arc extinction
and after all the transients disappears is called Recovery Voltage. The recovery voltage is of
normal frequency (50Hz) and is approximately equal to the system voltage.
8. Rate of Rise of Restriking Voltage (RRRV): The RRRV is defined as the slope of the
steepest tangent to the restriking voltage.

➢ V(t) = Voltage across circuit breaker contact immediately after opening

 ➢ v(t) = Vm [1 – cosω0t]
➢ where ω0 = 1 / √LC and hence f0 = (1/2π√LC), where f0 is the natural frequency of
oscillation.
➢ The maximum value of TRV = 2Vm when ω0t = π,
t = π / ω0
t = π / (1 / √LC)
t = π √LC
➢ The rate of rise of re-striking voltage

Classification of Circuit Breakers:

Circuit Breakers can be broadly classified into the following categories depending on the
technology they use for their construction and operation.

I. Classification of Circuit Breakers (CBs) Based on Arc Quenching

Medium:
Sl. No. Name of Circuit Medium for Arc Voltage Range
Breaker Quenching
1. Air-Break CB Air 400 V - 12 kV
2. Air Blast CB Pressurised Air 132 kV – 400 kV
3. Oil CB Transformer Oil 33 kV – 220 kV
4. Vacuum CB Vacuum 22 kV – 66 kV
5. SF6 CB SF6 Gas 33 kV – 800 kV

1.) Air-Break Circuit Breaker (ACB):

➢ The arc runners and chutes increase the arc length. Moreover, by cooling and splitting techniques
arc resistance increases to such an extent that the voltage drop across the arc becomes more than
the supply voltage. This will extinguish the arc at the current zero.
➢ The breaker has two contacts: main contact and arc contact. The main contacts are silver plated
and have low contact resistance. The current conduct when the mains contacts are in a closed
position. The arcing contacts are made of copper alloy and they are heat resistant.
➢ Low and medium voltage systems use ACB in electric furnaces and in large motors. They are
available in the range of 400V to 12kV.
 ➢ When the breaker is in close condition, the current flows in the main contact. When the contacts
are open, the main contact is separated first and the arcing contact remains closed. Therefore, the
current in the main contact moves to the arcing contact. Now the arcing contacts are separated
and an arc is formed between them.
➢ Here, the high resistance is used for arc interruption. The lengthening, splitting, and cooling the
arc increases the resistance. The two chambers called arc runner and arc chutes increases the
length of the arc. The arc moves along the arc runner and forced to move upwards into the arc
chute. The arc is split in this way by arc splitters and thus it extinguishes.

Advantages:
• It eliminates the risk of fire
• Easy to operate
• Low maintenance
• Low cost
Disadvantages:
• Poor efficiency at low current
• Operating speed is slow

2.) Air blast circuit breaker

➢ It uses a high-pressure air as the arc quenching medium. In this type of circuit breaker when the
contacts are separated, high-pressure air is forced on the arc through a nozzle.
➢ It cools the arc and the arcing products are blown away by the blast of the air. The chamber is
filled with high-pressure air after the extinction of arc which prevents restrike.
➢ The compressed air is stored in a tank. When a fault occurs, the contacts are opened in a flow of
arc and it is established by opening of blast valve. The high-pressure air blast cools the arc and
sweeps away the ionized particles along with it.
➢ This rapidly increases the dielectric strength of the
medium between the contacts and prevents from
re-establishing the arc.
Advantages:
• It eliminates the risk of fire
• Operating speed is high
• Requires less maintenance
• Cheap
Disadvantages:
• Air compressor needs to be maintained
• It produces a noise when the air is discharged

3.) Oil Circuit Breaker:

➢ The oil circuit breaker has an insulating oil which is used as an arc quenching medium for arc
extinction. Oil has better insulating property than air.
➢ It consists of current-carrying contacts enclosed in a metal tank and the tank is filled with the
insulating oil. The contacts are made to separate within an oil. acts as a good dielectric medium
for arc extinction. It is designed for the range of 33kV to 220kV.
➢ The working of the oil circuit breaker is, the contacts are opened when the fault occurs in the
system and the arc is developed between the contacts. The heat of the arc evaporates the
surrounding oil.
➢ This creates a large bubble of hydrogen that surrounds the arc. The oil surrounding the bubble
conducts the heat away from the arc and also contributes to deionization and extinction of the
arc.

Advantages of using oil as a medium:

• Low cost & easily available
• The oil has good dielectric strength
• Absorption of arc in the oil
• The good cooling properties of gas formed due to decomposing of oil
Disadvantages of using oil as a medium:
• Explosive
• It has a risk of fire
• Requires high maintenance
• Requires periodical replacement
 4.) Vacuum Circuit Breaker (VCB):
➢ The vacuum circuit breaker uses the arc quenching process in the vacuum as a switching
medium. The vacuum has the highest insulating strength. So, it has far superior arc quenching
properties than any other medium. It is suitable for medium-voltage power distribution ranging
from 22 kV to 66 kV.
➢ The vacuum circuit breaker consists of fixed contact, moving contact and an arc shield mounted
in a vacuum interrupter. The outer insulating body is made with glass and has a high vacuum
capacity. The movable member is connected to the bellows.
➢ The arc shield prevents the deterioration of the internal dielectric strength by preventing metallic
vapors from falling on the inside surface of the outer insulating body.
➢ The contacts use a large stem with disc shape faces. To dissipate heat for large overload current
during arcing, contact materials like copper alloy is used.

Advantages:
• Compact and Reliable
• Longer life
• No risk of fire
• Small switching stroke
• High dielectric strength
• Easy maintenance
• Arc extinction is very fast
Disadvantages:
• The cost of VCB will increase if the voltage exceeds 33 kV
• Loss of vacuum due to failure makes the entire current interruption useless

5.) SF6 Circuit Breaker:

➢ SF6 circuit breaker uses SF6 (Sulfur Hexafluoride) gas as an arc quenching medium. This gas is
electro-negative and it has high dielectric strength to absorb free electrons. This is very effective
for high voltage applications ranging from 33 kV to 800 kV.
➢ It consists of moving and fixed contacts enclosed in a chamber called an arc interruption chamber
filled with SF6 gas. The connection is given to an SF6 gas reservoir. A valve mechanism allows
the flow of gas from the reservoir to flow towards the arc interruption chamber.
➢ The operation of the SF6 circuit breaker is based on self-blast and compressing technique. As
per the construction diagram, when the fault occurs, the main contacts are separated. The current
flowing through the arcing contacts makes no electric arc is hit.
Properties of SF6 Gas
Physical properties:
• No Colour, Non-toxic and Non-flammable gas
• Excellent heat transfer property
Chemical properties:
• Chemically inert
• Chemically stable at atmospheric pressure and temperature
• Non-corrosive on all metals at ambient temperatures
Electrical properties:
• High dielectric strength (2.5 times greater than air)
• Arc-interrupting capacity
• The dielectric constant is independent of the frequency of the applied voltage
Advantages:
• Low maintenance cost
• There is no risk of fire because SF6 gas is non-flammable
• The gas has good insulating properties
• Less arcing time
• High dielectric strength of SF6 gas, it can interrupt high currents.
• Noiseless operations
Disadvantages:
• The cost of gas is high
• Needs cleaning periodically
• Replacement of SF6 gas after every operation

II. Classification of Circuit Breakers (CBs) Based on Voltage:

1. Low Voltage CB (LVCB) : (less than 1 kV)
2. Medium Voltage CB (MVCB) : (1 kV to 52 kV)
3. High Voltage CB (HVCB) : (66 kV to 220 kV)
4. Extra High Voltage CB (EHVCB) : (300 kV to 765 kV)
5. Ultra High Voltage CB (UHVCB) : (above 765 kV)

III. Classification of Circuit Breakers (CBs) Based on Location:

1. Indoor type
2. Outdoor type
FAULT CLEARING TIME OF A CB:

 Relaying time = Time from fault inception to the closure of trip circuit of CB
 Breaker opening time = Time from closure of the trip circuit to the opening of
the contacts of the CB
 Arcing time = Time from opening of the contacts of CB to final arc extinction
 Breaker interrupting time = Breaker opening time + Arcing time
 Fault clearing time = Relaying time + Breaker interrupting time