CHAPTER 5

Statistics

Statistics is a branch of mathematics that deals with the development of

methods which are essential to a more effective way of collecting data,
presenting data, and the analysis and interpretation of the results to yield
meaningful information.
Branches of Statistics:
❑ The branch of statistics that involves the collection, organization,
summarization and presentation of data is called descriptive statistics.
❑ The branch that interprets and draws conclusions from the data is
called inferential statistics.
Types of Data Set:
❑ Population refers to the totality of observations of which a study is
concerned.
❑ Any part or portion of the population is called a sample.

NOTE:
The statistical measure or characteristic
obtained by using all the data values from a given
population is called parameter while the statistical
measure or characteristic obtained by using data
values from a sample is called statistic.
 Measures of Central Tendency (Location)

1. The Arithmetic Mean. The mean is also commonly called the average. Given a
collection of 𝑛 data set of points, 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , ⋯ , 𝑥𝑛 , the mean is the sum of the
data values divided by the total number of the data values. The mean for a
sample is denoted by 𝑥ҧ and this statistics is computed as

σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖
𝑥ҧ =
𝑛
𝑥1 +𝑥2 +⋯+𝑥𝑛
=
𝑛
where 𝑛 represents the total number of values in the sample.
 Measures of Central Tendency (Location)
Example 1. In a given quiz, 5 students in MMW of 20 students got the test grades of 41,
39, 50, 47, and 44. Find the mean of these test scores.
Example 2. The ages of working student in two sections of MMW class are 18, 20, 17,
17, 18, 19, 19, and 20. Find the mean.

Properties of the Mean

♣ It is unique, meaning it has only one value.
♣ It can be computed for numerical data only that is interval or ratio level of data.
♣ It is easily affected by extreme values in the data. Thus, one should be cautious in
using the mean when there are extreme observations or outliers. If the outlier is
extremely low, it pulls down the value of the mean. If the outlier is a very big value, it
magnifies the mean. If the mean is greatly affected, then our summary description of
the data is distorted.
 Measures of Central Tendency (Location)
2. Median – the data value that divides a set of data into 2 equal parts when the
values are arranged in increasing order.
𝑋 𝑛 +𝑋 𝑛
+1
2 2
Formula: median= 𝑋𝑛+1 , if 𝑛 is odd; median= 2
, if 𝑛 is even.
2

Notations: 𝜇-parameter;
෤ 𝑥-statistic
෤

Example 1. The efficiency ratings of seven (7) employees of a certain company are 81,
69, 93, 76, 87, 70, and 95. Find the median.

Example 2. The weights (in kg) of a sample of six (6) female Miss Universe candidates
are 50, 49, 53, 58, 48, and 55. Find the median.
 Measures of Central Tendency (Location)

Properties of Median
♣ It is unique (for numerical data)
♣ It can be computed for ordinal, interval or ratio level data.
♣ It is not affected by extreme values since the median uses only the middle value/s.
 Measures of Central Tendency (Location)
3. Mode – the data value that occurs more frequent.
Note: A data set can have more than one mode or no mode at all.
Example. Find the mode(s) of the following sets of raw data:
a. 1 9 2 8 3 7 5 9 6
b. 8 2 9 1 5 7 6 3 4
c. 9 2 1 9 3 5 7 1 6
Properties of Mode
♣ It can be computed for any type of data whether it is nominal, ordinal, interval, or
ratio level data.
♣ It may not be unique since sometimes we cannot just get one value, like on the
Example c shown above.
♣ It may not exist like on the Example b shown above.
 Measures of Central Tendency (Location)

4. A value called the weighted mean is often used when some data
values are more important than others.
Formula:

where the 𝑤𝑖 ’s are the respective weights of the values 𝑥𝑖 ’s.

 Measures of Central Tendency (Location)
Examples:
1. Jeanne is an academic scholar. Last semester, she obtained the following grades:

Course Grades Units

Math 51 2.25 6
English 2 1.50 3
History 3 1.75 3
Philo. 2 2.00 3
PE 2 1.25 2
Physics 21 1.75 3
Physics 21.1 (Lab) 1.00 1

Determine Jeanne’s Grade Point Average(GPA).

 Measures of Central Tendency (Location)

2. Mary Grace acquired the following scores in her Math 17 subject:

Score
43
1st Prelim Exam
95
64
2nd Prelim Exam (Midterm)
100
83
Final Exam (comprehensive)
110
Classroom Performance (quizzes, 436
assignments, etc.) 650

Given that the 1st and 2nd prelim exams is 20% each, final exam is 30% and
classroom performance is 30%, determine if Mary Grace will pass her Math 17
subject if the minimum required percentage is 45%
 Measures of Variation (Dispersion)
In the preceding section, we introduced the three measures of central location-
the mean, the median, and the mode.
Machine 1 Machine 2
These three measures cannot provide
an adequate description on how the 9.52 8.01
data spreads or deviates away from 6.41 7.99
the mean. For instance consider a 10.07 7.95
soft-drink dispensing machine that 5.85 8.03
should dispense 8 oz. of your
selection into a cup. Table below 8.15 8.02
shows data for two of these ഥ
𝒙 = 𝟖. 𝟎 ഥ
𝒙 = 𝟖. 𝟎
machines. Table: Soda Dispensed (Ounces)
 Measures of Variation (Dispersion)
The data of two machine have an
equal mean which is 8 oz. However,
the quantity of soda dispensed for Machine 1 Machine 2
Machine 1 is very inconsistent-in 9.52 8.01
some cases he soda overflows the
6.41 7.99
cup, and in some cases too little soda
is dispensed. 10.07 7.95
5.85 8.03
Machine 2, on the other hand, is
working fine. The quantity dispensed 8.15 8.02
is very consistent with little variation. ഥ
𝒙 = 𝟖. 𝟎 ഥ
𝒙 = 𝟖. 𝟎
Table: Soda Dispensed (Ounces)

This example shows that average values do not reflect the spread or dispersion of data. To measure
spread or dispersion of data, we introduce statistical values such as the range and the variance.
 Measures of Variation (Dispersion)

1. Range. The range of a set of data is the difference between the largest and
smallest number in a data set. That is,

R = highest value-lowest value.

Among the different measures of variability, the range is the simplest to

understand and easy to compute.
 Measures of Variation (Dispersion)
Example.
1. Consider the following measurements, in liters, for two samples of orange juice
bottled by companies A and B:

Find the range.

2. Find the range of each given data set below:

A : 3, 4, 4, 7, 5, 7, 20
B : 3, 7, 11, 12, 15, 18, 20
 Measures of Variation (Dispersion)
2. Variance. The most popular method of measuring dispersion in statistics is to
measure the distance of each observation from the mean of the observations
(i.e. 𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥ҧ or 𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇). Since bigger samples would usually lead to greater sum of
the distances compared to small samples, the result is adjusted by the sample
size. One type of that measures dispersion this way is the variance.
Variance – the average of the squared distances of each data value from the mean.
Measures of Variation (Dispersion)
 Measures of Variation (Dispersion)

Example. The grade-point average of 20 college seniors selected at random from the
graduating class are as follows:

Calculate the variance.

 Measures of Variation (Dispersion)
Remarks
♣ The result of the computations will be the same as long as we don’t round off
the computations except for the final answer.
♣ The value of the variance cannot be negative.
♣ The unit of measurement for the variance is in square units of the original
measure.

3. Standard Deviation – the positive square root of the variance.

Parameter: 𝜎 = 𝜎 2 Statistic: 𝑠 = 𝑠 2
 Measures of Relative Position (Fractiles)
In addition to measures of central tendency and measures of variation, there are also
measures of position whether it will be at the center or at any points in the distribution
of the data. These measures , often referred to as quantities or fractiles, are values
below which is a specific fraction or percentage of the observations in a given set must
fall. These measures include percentiles, deciles, quartiles and 𝑧-scores.

1. Percentiles. The percentiles are values that divide a set of observations (arranged
increasingly) into 100 equal parts.
We use 𝑃𝑘 𝑘 = 1,2,3, … , 99 to denote the 𝑘 𝑡ℎ percentile such that 𝑘% the
observation falls below it.
 Measures of Relative Position (Fractiles)

2. Deciles. Deciles are values that divide the set of observations into 10 equal parts.
➢ It is denoted by 𝐷𝑘 𝑘 = 1,2, … , 9 , such that 𝐷𝑘 =the value such that 10 ⋅ 𝑘%
of the observation falls below it.

3. Quartiles. Quartiles are the values that divide the set of observations into 4
equal parts.
➢ It is denoted by 𝑄𝑘 𝑘 = 1,2,3 such that 𝑄𝑘 = the value such that 25 ⋅ 𝑘% of
the observations fall below it.
 Measures of Relative Position (Fractiles)
Steps in computing measures of NCL:
Step 1. Arrange the data in increasing order.
Step 2. Find the location of 𝑘 𝑡ℎ fractile by computing

Step 3.
 If 𝐿 is integer, then the desired value is the average of the 𝐿𝑡ℎ and
𝐿 + 1 𝑡ℎ observations.

 If 𝐿 is not an integer, round up 𝐿 to the next integer. The desired value is the
observation located to the rounded up value of 𝐿
 Measures of Relative Position (Fractiles)
Examples:
1. The number of movies attended last month by a random sample of 12 students
are recorded as follows: 3, 0, 3, 1, 6, 5, 7, 5, 8, 8, 10 and 11.
Find the following: 𝑃48 , 𝐷8 , 𝑄3 .

2. The following table lists the calories per 100 ml of 10 popular sodas. Find the
following:

a. 𝑃48
b. 𝑃70
 EXERCISES
For numbers 1-2, find the (a) Mean, (b) Median and (c) Mode.
1. The time spent (in minutes) each student in working the assigned problems are
provided below:
22 25 19 33 31 22 42 25 17
2. The Prelim scores of MMW students are given below:
79 80 49 67 86 91 36 33 77 50 12.
3. Suppose a student made an average score of 65% in the attendance, 60% in the
quizzes, 47% in the first prelim, 48% in the second prelim, and 54% in the final exam.
What is the final average score of the student if the attendance weigh 5% of the
total grade, quizzes 25%, first prelim 20%, second prelim 20%, and final exam weigh
30%. Did the student pass the course if the passing cut-off score is 60%?