KOFORIDUA TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

COURSE TITLE:
ENGLISH LANGUAGE

LECTURE 7 & 8

TOPIC
PARAGRAPHING

PETER MWINWELLE
 OBJECTIVES OF THE LESSON
• Discuss the concept of ‘paragraphing’.
• Identify and explain the parts of a paragraph.
• Discuss the importance of paragraphing.
• Identify the qualities of a good paragraph.
• Identify the types of paragraphs.
• Appropriately apply the understanding of
paragraphing to summary writing and the
composition of essays.
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 PARAGRAPH
❑ A paragraph refers to a group of interrelated
sentences that revolve an idea or theme.

❑ A paragraph may also refer to a group of

sentences that present a single idea.
❑ A paragraph is a collection of sentences which
all relate to one main idea or topic.

❑ It is as well considered as a unit of information

unified by a controlling idea.

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✓ Every paragraph has a key concept or main
idea.
✓ The main idea is the most important piece of
information the author wants the reader to
know about a particular paragraph.
✓ A paragraph is often started on a new line and
most cases, it is indented.
✓ If the paragraph is indented, the subsequent
ones are expected to fall in line with where the
first indentation took place in order to achieve
good organization.

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• In business communication, a paragraph can
be between three to four lines but in normal or
academic writing, a paragraph may extend
from fours lines to eight and beyond.

• A paragraph may appear lengthy because it is

made up of unnecessary repetition.
Unnecessary repetitions must therefore be
avoided in paragraph writing.

• The length of a paragraph is therefore

determined by the content, length, style and
the aim of writing.
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 IMPORTANCE OF PARAGRAPHING
❑ Paragraphing helps writers to organize their
ideas in an essay.
❑ It encourages writers to give adequate focus to
various aspects of their messages.
❑ It helps writers desist from putting information
together haphazardly.
❑ It helps to identify one point or one part of an
essay from others.
❑ It helps readers skim long passages.
❑ It makes revision very easy.
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 PARTS OF A PARAGRAPH
There are four main parts of a paragraph. These
are

1. The topic sentence

2. Major supporting sentences

3. Minor supporting sentences

4. Concluding sentence

NB: Each of these four will be discussed exhaustively.

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ILLUSTRATION OF PARTS OF A PARAGRAPH

8
Concluding
Sentence

Minor
supporting
sentences

Major
supporting
sentences

Topic
sentence
(Subj. + C.I) A GRAPHICAL
REPRESENTATION
OF PARAGRAPHS
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 TOPIC SENTENCE
➢ The topic sentence refers to the sentence that
contains the main idea in a paragraph. It states
thesis of the essay.
➢ An effective topic sentence typically contains
only one main idea.
➢ The remainder of the paragraph aside the topic
sentence develops that idea more fully, offering
supporting points and examples.
➢ After reading a topic sentence, one should be
able to anticipate the type of information
contained in the rest of the paragraph.
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 TOPIC SENTENCE CON’T
➢ Beginning a paragraph with a topic sentence is
one of the best ways to achieve clarity and
unity in one's writing.
➢ Notwithstanding, a topic sentence can appear
at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of a
paragraph.
➢ It can be a simple or complex in structure.
➢ The function of a topic sentence is to describe
what the paragraph will be about, such that, the
reader has clear expectations about what will
follow. 11
 TOPIC SENTENCE CON’T
➢ If the remainder of the paragraph does not
develop the topic sentence, the paragraph will
lack unity, coherence and adequate
development.

Sample topic sentence

"The cockroaches that inhabit many city
apartments and homes are parasites that are
almost impossible to exterminate completely.”
NB: Notice that this topic sentence clearly identifies that the key topic of the
paragraph is cockroaches. It also indicates what the remainder of the
paragraph will discuss: the difficulty of exterminating cockroaches. The
reader can then expect the rest of the paragraph to explain how and why
cockroaches are difficult to eliminate.
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 PARTS OF THE TOPIC SENTENCE
➢ The topic sentence is made up of two parts
namely

1. The subject
2. The controlling idea

➢ Both subject and controlling idea must be

carefully crafted to enhance the quality of a
paragraph.

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 SUBJECT AND CONTROLLING IDEA
➢ A topic sentence of a paragraph introduces the
SUBJECT of the paragraph and limits what the
author has to say about the subject by adding a
CONTROLLING IDEA.
➢ The controlling idea may answer a question,
suggest a list, or express an opinion.

➢ The subject can be fairly broad but the

controlling idea will limit it.
➢ A controlling idea limits the subject, expresses
an opinion or provides focus by answering a
question.
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 SUBJECT AND CONTROLLING IDEA CON’T
➢ The subject usually refers to the topic of
discussion.
➢ The controlling idea refers to what is said about
the subject.

Below is a sample topic sentence divided into a

subject and controlling idea
‘The main problem in our city is its poor public
transportation system.’
Subject: The main problem in our city.
Controlling Idea: is its poor public transportation system.
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• Once you have decided on your subject, you
must convert the subject into a topic sentence
by adding a controlling idea to the subject.
• For instance, a writer wishes to talk education
in his paragraph. The subject of the topic
sentence in that paragraph therefore would be
‘education’. The controlling idea is therefore
added to make a statement about the subject.
• E.g. Education is key for social development
• (Subject) (Controlling Idea)

• The combination of subject and the

controlling idea makes the topic sentence
complete.
NB: SUBJECT + CONTROLLING IDEA = Topic Sentence 16
 HOW TO INTRODUCE THE TOPIC SENTENCE
APPROPRIATELY

➢ Topic sentences must be introduced at the beginning

of paragraphs using transitional devices such as to
start with, again, moreover, furthermore etc.

➢ The topic sentences in the subsequent paragraphs

can be introduced by transitional markers such as in
addition, again, besides, moreover, further more, last
but not least, in conclusion etc.

For example
To begin with, education is a key social development…
In addition, education improves the quality of human resources

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 MAJOR SUPPORTING SENTENCES
• A major support sentence is a sentence that
takes an element of the topic sentence and
expands it.
• In a paragraph with a complex topic sentence,
the number of major support sentences
generally tallies with the number of points
identified in the topic sentence.

• The major supporting sentences identify

various divisions of the main idea of a
paragraph.
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 Topic Sentence
I like my wife for her honesty, dedication and humility.

Major Supporting Sentences

✓ My wife’s honesty is evident in the way she handles the
housekeep money.

✓ She is dedicated to the wellbeing of her children.

✓ She is blessed with a unique form of humility.

NB: From the above illustration, the major supporting

sentences further explain aspects of the topic sentence
such as honesty, dedication and humility. The major
supporting sentences therefore expand these aspects of
the topic sentence.
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 MINOR SUPPORTING SENTENCES
• Minor supporting sentences expand and
illustrate the ideas expressed in major
supporting sentences.

• Each major supporting sentence has minor

supporting sentences which support it.

• In effect, the minor supporting sentences

support the topic sentence indirectly through
the major supporting sentences.

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 CONCLUDING SENTENCE
• For a paragraph to function as a unit, the
writer must end it properly to let the reader
know that he has finished his discussion.
• The concluding sentence is therefore a
restatement of the topic sentence using
different wording to avoid repetition.
• The concluding sentence comes at the end of
paragraph. It generally sums up or reiterates
the focus of the paragraph.
• The best way to conclude a paragraph is to
remind the reader of what you originally set
out to do. 21
• The concluding sentence can function as a
topic sentence if the paragraph does not have
one already.

• Concluding sentences may indicate

deductions, refer to the cause of the issue
which is in the theme of the paragraph,
suggest solutions, take a stand, or project into
the future.

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AN ILLUSTRATION ON HOW TO RESTATE THE
TOPIC SENTENCE AS THE CONCLUDING
SENTENCE
• Topic sentence: Exercise routines should be
carefully planned for best results

• Restatement of the topic sentence

(concluding sentence): Therefore, exercise
can be beneficial if some basic guidelines
are followed.

NB: The concluding sentence above suggests a

solution.
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QUALITIES OF A GOOD PARAGRAPH

There are three main qualities of a good

paragraph. These are;

1. Unity

2. Coherence

3. Adequacy

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 UNITY
• Unity in paragraphing refers to oneness among
the sentences that form a paragraph. Each
sentence must therefore contribute to support
of the main idea in the paragraph.
• Unity refers to the extent to which all of the
ideas contained within a given paragraph
"hanged together" in a way that is easy for the
reader to understand.
• In order for a paragraph to maintain a sense of
unity, it must focus solely on a single idea,
point, or argument.
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• All the sentences in a paragraph must
therefore relate with both the subject and
controlling idea.
• Unity is important because it aids the reader in
following along with the writer's ideas.
• The reader can expect that a given paragraph
will deal only with one main topic; when a new
paragraph begins, this signals that the writer is
moving on to a new topic.
• The reader can expect that a given paragraph
will deal only with one main topic; when a new
paragraph begins, this signals that the writer is
moving on to a new topic. 26
HOW TO ACHIEVE UNITY IN A PARAGRAPH
• Plan by identifying a focus for your paragraph.

• State your focus in the topic sentence.

• Use transitional devices to connect the topic

sentence to the major and minor supporting
sentences as well as the concluding sentence.
This contributes to unity as well as coherence in
a paragraph.

• Repetition of key words in vantage points in the

paragraph or essay also helps to ensure unity.
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 SAMPLE PARAGRAPH TO ILLUSTRATE UNITY
"Employees' attitudes at Jonstone Electric Company
should be improved. The workers do not feel that they are
a working team instead of just individuals. If people felt
they were a part of a team, they would not misuse the
tools, or deliberately undermine the work of others.
Management's attitude toward its employees should also
be improved. Managers at Jonstone Electric act as
though their employees are incapable of making
decisions or doing their own work. Managers treat
workers like objects, not human beings.“

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 SAMPLE PARAGRAPH TO ILLUSTRATE UNITY
"Employees' attitudes at Jonstone Electric Company
should be improved. The workers do not feel that they are
a working team instead of just individuals. If people felt
they were a part of a team, they would not misuse the
tools, or deliberately undermine the work of others.
Management's attitude toward its employees should also
be improved. Managers at Jonstone Electric act as
though their employees are incapable of making
decisions or doing their own work. Managers treat
workers like objects, not human beings.“
NB: Note that there are two main ideas presented in the paragraph
above. The topic sentence indicates that the paragraph will deal with
the subject of "employees' attitudes," but the paragraph shifts
unexpectedly to the topic of "management's attitudes." To achieve
unity in this paragraph, the writer should begin a new paragraph
when the switch is made from employees to managers. 29
 COHERENCE
• Coherence refers to the orderly and logical
flow or arrangement of sentences and ideas in
a paragraph.

• Coherence may also refer to the extent to

which the flow of ideas in a paragraph is easily
understood by the reader.

• A paragraph is coherent when each sentence

leads smoothly into the next one through the
use of transitional expressions, logical relation
of ideas, repetition of key words, and/or the
use of pronouns to refer to a previous subject.
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• A paragraph is not coherent if there are
inadequate connections between ideas
causing the reader to get lost or to struggle to
figure out the authors intentions.

• For this reason, coherence is closely related to

unity. When a writer changes main ideas or
topics within a paragraph, confusion often
results.

• To achieve coherence, then, a writer should

show how all of the ideas contained in a
paragraph are relevant to the main topic.

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HOW TO ACHIEVE COHERENCE IN A PARAGRAPH

• The first sentence of a paragraph should be a topic

sentence, introducing the main idea of the paragraph.
• The supporting sentences of a paragraph (the second
sentence onwards) should explain or support the idea
expressed in the topic sentence (first sentence).
• Support your paragraph by adding details and
explanations of supporting ideas in your paragraph.
• The supporting sentences of a paragraph should
gradually move from general to specific explanation of
the idea.

• The topic sentence and the other supporting sentences

must cohere through the use of transitional devices.
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 TRANSITIONAL DEVICES
• Transitional devices are words and phrases
which are used to establish and clarify the
relationships between sentences.

• These devices create logical connections in

meaning between sentences and between
paragraphs.

• The use of transitional devices help in the

achievement of both unity and coherence in
and between paragraphs.
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 INTER AND INTRA PARAGRAPH TRANSITIONAL
DEVICES
• Transitional devices which are used within paragraphs
are called intra-paragraph transitional devices while the
ones used to connect one paragraph to the other are
called inter-paragraph transitional devices.

• Intra-paragraph transitional devices may include since,

because, to explain, similarly, in similar vein, put
differently, in effect, for instance, to exemplify
consequently.
• Most inter-paragraph transitional devices are words that
signal the addition of information which may include to
begin with, secondly, next, in addition, again, moreover,
more importantly, further, furthermore, last but not
least, in conclusion.
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 FUNCTIONS OF TRANSITIONAL DEVICES
• To show contrast (counter to, as opposed to, on the
contrary, on the other hand, instead, in contrast)

• To show comparison (similarly, likewise, in the same

way, in like manner, like, also, equally, in similar vein)

• To give reasons (since, because, for, owing to, due to, to

clarify, to explain)

• To emphasise a point (indeed, in fact, to emphasise,

certainly)

• To add information (Again, also, in addition, additionally,

further, furthermore, moreover, lastly, more importantly,
next, secondly)
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 FUNCTIONS OF TRANSITIONAL DEVICES CON’T
• To show illustration (for example, for instance, to cite an
instance, to clarify, to exemplify)

• To sum up (finally, to conclude, in sum, all in all, in short,

therefore, altogether, in summary, thus)

• To state a point differently(put differently, put another

way, in other words, in effect)

• To show time and sequence (later on, at the same time,

immediately, previously, lately, eventually, afterwards,
meanwhile, prior to)

• To show the result of an action (consequently, as a

result, in response, so, therefore)
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 SAMPLE PARAGRAPH TO ILLUSTRATE COHERENCE

"Schools should offer courses to help students

with the problems of unemployment. Such a
course might begin with a discussion of where
to find employment, then cover resume writing
and interviewing. Algebra and history don't help
students with real-world needs. They are
required courses that students aren't interested
in, and this is frustrating for students who would
rather learn about other subjects. If schools
offered job-skills courses, students would be
well prepared for the difficult task of finding a
job once they finish school."
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 SAMPLE PARAGRAPH TO ILLUSTRATE COHERENCE

"Schools should offer courses to help students with the

problems of unemployment. Such a course might begin
with a discussion of where to find employment, then
cover resume writing and interviewing. Algebra and
history don't help students with real-world needs. They
are required courses that students aren't interested in,
and this is frustrating for students who would rather
learn about other subjects. If schools offered job-skills
courses, students would be well prepared for the
difficult task of finding a job once they finish school."
NB: In the paragraph above, the writer begins with the topic of job-
skills courses, but veers off onto the topic of algebra and history
before returning to the subject of courses on employment. As a
result, the paragraph is disjointed and difficult to understand.
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 ADEQUACY
• A paragraph is adequately developed when it
describes, explains and supports the topic
sentence.

• If the "promise" of the topic sentence is not

fulfilled, or if the reader is left with questions
after reading the paragraph, the paragraph
has not been adequately developed.

• Generally speaking, a paragraph which

consists of only two or three sentences is
under-developed.
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• Generally speaking, a paragraph should
contain between three and five sentences, all
of which help clarify and support the main idea
of the paragraph.

• A paragraph that is adequate should not be too

short that it cannot sufficiently represent the
idea in the paragraph or too long, far more
than necessary.

For instance, a paragraph on the arms of

government cannot be adequate if it discusses
the legislature and executive leaving out the
judiciary.
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 A SAMPLE PARAGRAPH TO ILLUSTRATE ADEQUACY

"The topics of leadership and

management are both similar to
and different from one another in
several important ways. To be
effective, a manager should be a
good leader. And good leaders
know how to manage people
effectively."
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 A SAMPLE PARAGRAPH TO ILLUSTRATE ADEQUACY

"The topics of leadership and management are both

similar to and different from one another in several
important ways. To be effective, a manager should be a
good leader. And good leaders know how to manage
people effectively."
NB: in the above paragraph, the topic sentence promises to discuss
"several" points of comparison and contrast between leadership
and management, but the remainder of the paragraph falls short of
fulfilling this promise. Only one point of comparison is raised, and
this point is left unexplained. Several questions remain
unanswered. How are leaders different from managers? In what
specific ways are the two alike? Why must a manager be a good
leader to be effective? Why must good leaders know how to
manage people effectively? To achieve adequate development in
this paragraph, these questions should be addressed.
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 RECAP AND CLOSURE
• In today’s lesson, we discussed the concept
of paragraphing and the parts of a
paragraph.

• We also looked at the importance of

paragraphing and the qualities of a good
paragraph.

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 ASSIGNMENT
1. Construct a ten line paragraph on any theme of
your choice. Identify the type of paragraph it is,
the topic sentence (subject and controlling idea),
major and minor supporting sentences and the
concluding sentence in the paragraph.

2. Develop the topic sentence ‘Education

develops the human resource of a nation’ into a
paragraph made up of seven sentences. (Make sure
your paragraph contains all the parts of a paragraph as
well as all the qualities of a good paragraph)

NB: To be typed and printed for submission

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THANK
YOU45