750 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Answers 832
8.6 Properties of Logarithms;
Solving Exponential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833
Change of Base Formula 834
Solving Exponential Equations 836
Exercises 841
Answers 844
8.7 Exponential Growth and Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847
Exponential Growth Models 847
Applications of Exponential Growth 849
Exponential Decay Models 851
Applications of Exponential Decay 852
Exercises 857
Answers 860
8.8 Additional Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861
Computing Large Powers 861
Exercises 863
Answers 864
8.9 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865

Copyright

All parts of this intermediate algebra textbook are copyrighted in the name of
Department of Mathematics, College of the Redwoods. They are not in the public
domain. However, they are being made available free for use in educational in-
stitutions. This offer does not extend to any application that is made for profit.
Users who have such applications in mind should contact David Arnold at david-
arnold@redwoods.edu or Bruce Wagner at bruce-wagner@redwoods.edu.

This work (including all text, Portable Document Format files, and any other orig-
inal works), except where otherwise noted, is licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 2.5 License, and is copyrighted C 2006,
Department of Mathematics, College of the Redwoods. To view a copy of this
license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/2.5/ or send a letter
to Creative Commons, 543 Howard Street, 5th Floor, San Francisco, California,
94105, USA.

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.1 Exponents and Roots 751

8.1 Exponents and Roots

Before defining the next family of functions, the exponential functions, we will need to
discuss exponent notation in detail. As we shall see, exponents can be used to describe
not only powers (such as 52 and 23 ), but also roots (such as square roots and cube
roots). Along the way, we’ll define higher roots and develop a few of their properties.
More detailed work with roots will then be taken up in the next chapter.

Integer Exponents
Recall that use of a positive integer exponent is simply a shorthand for repeated mul-
tiplication. For example,

52 = 5 · 5 (1)

and

23 = 2 · 2 · 2. (2)

In general, bn stands for the quanitity b multiplied by itself n times. With this definition,
the following Laws of Exponents hold.

Laws of Exponents

1. br bs = br+s

br
2. = br−s
bs
3. (br )s = brs

The Laws of Exponents are illustrated by the following examples.

I Example 3.

a) 23 22 = (2 · 2 · 2)(2 · 2) = 2 · 2 · 2 · 2 · 2 = 25 = 23+2

24 2·2·2·2 2·2·2·2
b) = = = 2 · 2 = 22 = 24−2
22 2·2 2·2
c) (23 )2 = (23 )(23 ) = (2 · 2 · 2)(2 · 2 · 2) = 2 · 2 · 2 · 2 · 2 · 2 = 26 = 23·2

Note that the second law only makes sense for r > s, since otherwise the exponent
r − s would be negative or 0. But actually, it turns out that we can create definitions
for negative exponents and the 0 exponent, and consequently remove this restriction.

1
Copyrighted material. See: http://msenux.redwoods.edu/IntAlgText/

Version: Fall 2007

752 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Negative exponents, as well as the 0 exponent, are simply defined in such a way that
the Laws of Exponents will work for all integer exponents.

• For the 0 exponent, the first law implies that b0 b1 = b0+1 , and therefore b0 b = b. If
b 6= 0, we can divide both sides by b to obtain b0 = 1 (there is one exception: 00 is
not defined).
• For negative exponents, the second law implies that
b0 1
b−n = b0−n = = n,
bn b

provided that b 6= 0. For example, 2−3 = 1/23 = 1/8, and 2−4 = 1/24 = 1/16.
Therefore, negative exponents and the 0 exponent are defined as follows:

Definition 4.
1
b−n = and b0 = 1
bn
provided that b 6= 0.

1 −2
Compute the exact values of 4−3 , 60 , and


I Example 5. 5 .
1 1
a) 4−3 = 3
=
4 64
b) 60 = 1
 −2
1 1 1
c) = = = 25
5 1 2 1


5 25

We now have bn defined for all integers n, in such a way that the Laws of Exponents
hold. It may be surprising to learn that we can likewise define expressions using rational
exponents, such as 21/3 , in a consistent manner. Before doing so, however, we’ll need
to take a detour and define roots.

Roots
Square Roots: Let’s begin by defining the square root of a real number. We’ve
used the square root in many sections in this text, so it should be a familiar concept.
Nevertheless, in this section we’ll look at square roots in more detail.

Definition 6. Given a real number a, a “square root of a” is a number x such

that x2 = a.

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.1 Exponents and Roots 753

For example, 3 is a square root of 9 since 32 = 9. Likewise, −4 is a square root of 16

since (−4)2 = 16. In a sense, taking a square root is the “opposite” of squaring, so the
definition of square root must be intimately connected with the graph of y = x2 , the
squaring function. We investigate square roots in more detail by looking for solutions
of the equation

x2 = a. (7)

There are three cases, each depending on the value and sign of a. In each case, the
graph of the left-hand side of x2 = a is the parabola shown in Figures 1(a), (b), and
(c).

• Case I: a < 0

The graph of the right-hand side of x2 = a is a horizontal line located a units below
the x-axis. Hence, the graphs of y = x2 and y = a do not intersect and the equation
x2 = a has no real solutions. This case is shown in Figure 1(a). It follows that a
negative number has no square root.

• Case II: a = 0

The graph of the right-hand side of x2 = 0 is a horizontal line that coincides with
the x-axis. The graph of y = x2 intersects the graph of y = 0 at one point, at
the vertex of the parabola. Thus, the only solution of x2 = 0 is x√= 0, as seen in
Figure
√ 1(b). The solution is the square root of 0, and is denoted 0, so it follows
that 0 = 0.

• Case III: a > 0

The graph of the right-hand side of x2 = a is a horizontal line located a units above
the x-axis. The graphs of y = x2 and y = a have two points of intersection, and
therefore the equation x2 = a has
√ two real solutions, as shown in Figure 1(c). The
2
solutions of x = a are x = ± a. Note that we have two notations, one that calls
for the positive solution and a second that calls for the negative solution.

y y y
y=x2 y=x2 y=x2
y=a

y=0
x x √ √ x
0 − a a
y=a

(a) No real solutions. (b) One real solution. (c) Two real solutions.
Figure 1. The solutions of x2 = a depend upon the sign and value of a.

Version: Fall 2007

754 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Let’s look at some examples.

I Example 8. What are the solutions of x2 = −5?

The graph of the left-hand side of x2 = −5 is the parabola depicted in Figure 1(a).
The graph of the right-hand side of x2 = −5 is a horizontal line located 5 units below
the x-axis. Thus, the graphs do not intersect and the equation x2 = −5 has no real
solutions.
You can also reason as follows. We’re asked to find a solution of x2 = −5, so you
must find a number whose square equals −5. However, whenever you square a real
number, the result is always nonnegative (zero or positive). It is not possible to square
a real number and get −5.
Note that this √
also means that it is not possible to take the square root of a negative
number. That is, −5 is not a real number.

I Example 9. What are the solutions of x2 = 0?

√
There is only one solution, namely x = 0. Note that this means that 0 = 0.

I Example 10. What are the solutions of x2 = 25?

The graph of the left-hand side of x2 = 25 is the parabola depicted in Figure 1(c).
The graph of the right-hand side of x2 = 25 is a horizontal line located 25 units above
the x-axis. The graphs will intersect in two points, so the equation x2 = 25 has two
real solutions.
√
The solutions of x2 = 25 are called square roots of 25 and are written x = ± 25.
In this case, we can simplify further and write x = ±5.
It is extremely important to note the symmetry in Figure 1(c) and note that we
have two real solutions, one negative and one positive. Thus, we need two notations,
one for the positive square root of 25 and one for the negative square root 25.
Note that (5)2 = 25, so x = 5 is the positive solution of x2 = 25. For the positive
solution, we use the notation
√
25 = 5.

This is pronounced “the positive square root of 25 is 5.”

On the other hand, note that (−5)2 = 25, so x = −5 is the negative solution of
x2 = 25. For the negative solution, we use the notation
√
− 25 = −5.

This is pronounced “the negative square root of 25 is −5.”

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.1 Exponents and Roots 755

This discussion leads to the following detailed summary.

Summary: Square Roots

The solutions of x2 = a are called “square roots of a.”

• Case I: a < 0. The equation x2 = a has no real solutions.

• Case II: a = 0. The equation x2 = a has one real solution, namely x = 0.

√
Thus, 0 = 0.
√
a > 0. The equation x2 = a has two real solutions, x = ± a. The
• Case III: √
notation a calls for the positive
√ square root of a, that is, the positive solution
of x2 = a. The notation − a calls for the negative square root of a, that is,
the negative solution of x2 = a.

Cube Roots: Let’s move on to the definition of cube roots.

Definition 11. Given a real number a, a “cube root of a” is a number x such

that x3 = a.

For example, 2 is a cube root of 8 since 23 = 8. Likewise, −4 is a cube root of

−64 since (−4)3 = −64. Thus, taking the cube root is the “opposite” of cubing, so the
definition of cube root must be closely connected to the graph of y = x3 , the cubing
function. Therefore, we look for solutions of

x3 = a. (12)

Because of the shape of the graph of y = x3 , there is only one case to consider. The
graph of the left-hand side of x3 = a is shown in Figure 2. The graph of the right-
hand side of x3 = a is a horizontal line, located a units above, on, or below the x-axis,
depending on the sign and value of a. Regardless of the location of the horizontal line
y = a, there will only be one point of intersection, as shown in Figure 2.
A detailed summary of cube roots follows.

Summary: Cube Roots

The solutions of x3 = a are called the “cube roots of a.” Whether a is negative,
zero,√or positive makes no difference. There is exactly one real solution, namely
x = 3 a.

Version: Fall 2007

 756 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

y
y=a y=x3

√ x
3a

Figure 2. The graph of y = x3 inter-

sect the graph of y = a in exactly one
place.

Let’s look at some examples.

I Example 13. What are the solutions of x3 = 8?

The graph of the left-hand side of x3 = 8 is the cubic polynomial shown in Figure 2.
The graph of the right-hand side of x3 = 8 is a horizontal line located 8 units above the
x-axis. The graphs have one point of intersection, so the equation x3 = 8 has exactly
one real solution. 2
The solutions of x3 = 8 are called “cube roots of 8.” √As shown from the graph,
there is exactly one real solution of x3 = 8, namely x = 3 8. Now since (2)3 = 8, it
follows that x = 2 is a real solution of x3 = 8. Consequently, the cube root of 8 is 2,
and we write
√
3
8 = 2.

Note that in the case of cube root, there is no need for the two notations we saw in the
square root case (one for the positive square root, one for the negative
√ square root).
This is because there is only one real cube root. Thus, the notation 3 8 is pronounced
“the cube root of 8.”

I Example 14. What are the solutions of x3 = 0?

√
There is only one solution of x3 = 0, namely x = 0. This means that 3
0 = 0.

2 There are also two other solutions, but they are both complex numbers, not real numbers. This textbook
does not discuss complex numbers, but you may learn about them in more advanced courses.

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.1 Exponents and Roots 757

I Example 15. What are the solutions of x3 = −8?

The graph of the left-hand side of x3 = −8 is the cubic polynomial shown in

Figure 2. The graph of the right-hand side of x3 = −8 is a horizontal line located 8
units below the x-axis. The graphs have only one point
√ of intersection, so the equation
x3 = −8 has exactly one real solution, denoted x = 3 −8. Now since (−2)3 = −8, it
follows that x = −2 is a real solution of x3 = −8. Consequently, the cube root of −8
is −2, and we write
√
3
−8 = −2.
√
Again, because there is only one real solution of x3 = −8, the notation 3 −8 is pro-
nounced “the cube root of −8.” Note that, unlike the square root of a negative number,
the cube root of a negative number is allowed.

Higher Roots: The previous discussions generalize easily to higher roots, such as
fourth roots, fifth roots, sixth roots, etc.

Definition 16. Given a real number a and a positive integer n, an “nth root of
a” is a number x such that xn = a.

For example, 2 is a 6th root of 64 since 26 = 64, and −3 is a fifth root of −243 since
(−3)5 = −243.
The case of even roots (i.e., when n is even) closely parallels the case of square roots.
That’s because when the exponent n is even, the graph of y = xn closely resembles
that of y = x2 . For example, observe the case for fourth roots shown in Figures 3(a),
(b), and (c).
y y y
y=x4 y=x4 y=x4
y=a

y=0
x x √ √ x
0 −4a 4a
y=a

(a) No real solutions. (b) One real solution. (c) Two real solutions.
Figure 3. The solutions of x4 = a depend upon the sign and value of a.

The discussion for even nth roots closely parallels that presented in the introduction
of square roots, so without further ado, we go straight to the summary.

Version: Fall 2007

758 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Summary: Even nth Roots

If n is a positive even integer, then the solutions of xn = a are called “nth roots
of a.”

• Case I: a < 0. The equation xn = a has no real solutions.

• Case II: a = 0. The equation xn = a has exactly one real solution, namely
√
x = 0. Thus, n 0 = 0. √
a > 0. The equation xn = a has two real solutions, x = ± n a. The
• Case III: √
notation n a calls for the positive
√ nth root of a, that is, the positive solution
n
of x = a. The notation − a calls for the negative nth root of a, that is, the
n

negative solution of xn = a.

Likewise, the case of odd roots (i.e., when n is odd) closely parallels the case of cube
roots. That’s because when the exponent n is odd, the graph of y = xn closely resembles
that of y = x3 . For example, observe the case for fifth roots shown in Figure 4.
y
y=x5

y=a

√ x
5a

Figure 4. The graph of y = x5 inter-

sects the graph of y = a in exactly one
place.

The discussion of odd nth roots closely parallels the introduction of cube roots which
we discussed earlier. So, without further ado, we proceed straight to the summary.

Summary: Odd nth Roots

If n is a positive odd integer, then the solutions of xn = a are called the “nth
roots of a.” Whether a is negative, zero, or positive
√ makes no difference. There is
exactly one real solution of xn = a, denoted x = n a.

√ √
n
Remark 17. The symbols and for square root and nth root, respectively,
are also called radicals.

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.1 Exponents and Roots 759

We’ll close this section with a few more examples.

I Example 18. What are the solutions of x4 = 16?

The graph of the left-hand side of x4 = 16 is the quartic polynomial shown in

Figure 3(c). The graph of the right-hand side of x4 = 16 is a horizontal line, located
16 units above the x-axis. The graphs will intersect in two points, so the equation
x4 = 16 has two real solutions.
√
The solutions of x4 = 16 are called fourth roots of 16 and are written x = ± 4 16.
It is extremely important to note the symmetry in Figure 3(c) and note that we have
two real solutions of x4 = 16, one of which is negative and the other positive. Hence,
we need two notations, one for the positive fourth root of 16 and one for the negative
fourth root of 16.
Note that 24 = 16, so x = 2 is the positive real solution of x4 = 16. For this positive
solution, we use the notation
√4
16 = 2.

This is pronounced “the positive fourth root of 16 is 2.”

On the other hand, note that (−2)4 = 16, so x = −2 is the negative real solution
of x4 = 16. For this negative solution, we use the notation
√
4
− 16 = −2. (19)

This is pronounced “the negative fourth root of 16 is −2.”

I Example 20. What are the solutions of x5 = −32?

The graph of the left-hand side of x5 = −32 is the quintic polynomial pictured in
Figure 4. The graph of the right-hand side of x5 = −32 is a horizontal line, located
32 units below the x-axis. The graphs have one point of intersection, so the equation
x5 = −32 has exactly one real solution.
The solutions of x5 = −32 are called “fifth roots of −32.” As√shown from the
graph, there is exactly one real solution of x5 = −32, namely x = 5 −32. Now since
(−2)5 = −32, it follows that x = −2 is a solution of x5 = −32. Consequently, the fifth
root of −32 is −2, and we write
√5
−32 = −2.
√
Because there is only one real solution, the notation 5 −32 is pronounced “the fifth
root of −32.” Again, unlike the square root or fourth root of a negative number, the
fifth root of a negative number is allowed.

Not all roots simplify to rational numbers. If that were the case, it would not even
be necessary to implement radical notation. Consider the following example.

Version: Fall 2007

760 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

I Example 21. Find all real solutions of the equation x2 = 7, both graphically and
algebraically, and compare your results.

We could easily sketch rough graphs of y = x2 and y = 7 by hand, but let’s seek a
higher level of accuracy by asking the graphing calculator to handle this task.

• Load the equation y = x2 and y = 7 into Y1 and Y2 in the calculator’s Y= menu,

respectively. This is shown in Figure 5(a).

• Use the intersect utility on the graphing calculator to find the coordinates of the
points of intersection. The x-coordinates of these points, shown in Figure 5(b) and
(c), are the solutions to the equation x2 = 7.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5. The solutions of x2 = 7 are x ≈ −2.645751 or x ≈ 2.6457513.

Guidelines for Reporting Graphing Calculator Solutions. Recall the standard

method for reporting graphing calculator results on your homework:

• Copy the image from your viewing window onto your homework paper. Label and
scale each axis with xmin, xmax, ymin, and ymax, then label each graph with its
equation, as shown in Figure 6.

• Drop dashed vertical lines from each point of intersection to the x-axis. Shade and
label your solutions on the x-axis.

y y=x2
10
y=7

x
−10 −2.645751 2.6457513 10

−10
Figure 6. The solutions of x2 = 7 are
x ≈ −2.645751 or x ≈ 2.6457513.

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.1 Exponents and Roots 761

Hence, the approximate solutions are x ≈ −2.645751 or x ≈ 2.6457513.

On the other hand, to find analytic solutions of x2 = 7, we simply take plus or
minus the square root of 7.
x2 = 7
√
x=± 7
To compare these exact solutions with the approximate
√ solutions found by using the
graphing calculator, use a calculator to compute ± 7, as shown in Figure 7.

√
Figure 7.Approximating ± 7.
√ √
Note that these approximations of − 7 and 7 agree quite nicely with the solutions
found using the graphing calculator’s intersect utility and reported in Figure 6.
√ √
Both − 7 and 7 are examples of irrational numbers, that is, numbers that cannot
be expressed in the form p/q, where p and q are integers.

Rational Exponents
As with the definition of negative and zero exponents, discussed earlier in this section,
it turns out that rational exponents can be defined in such a way that the Laws of
Exponents will still apply (and in fact, there’s only one way to do it).
The third law gives us a hint on how to define rational exponents. For example,
suppose that we want to define 21/3 . Then by the third law,
 1 3 1
2 3 = 2 3 ·3 = 21 = 2,

so, by taking cube roots of both sides, we must define 21/3 by the formula 3
1 √
3
2 3 = 2.

The same argument shows that if n is any odd positive integer, then 21/n must be
defined by the formula
1 √
n
2 n = 2.

However, for an even integer n, there appears to be a choice. Suppose that we want
to define 21/2 . Then

√
3 Recall that the equation x3 = a has a unique solution x = 3
a.

Version: Fall 2007

762 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

 1
2 1
22 = 2 2 ·2 = 21 = 2,

so
1 √
2 2 = ± 2.

However, the negative choice for the exponent 1/2 leads to problems, because then
certain expressions are not defined. For example, it would follow from the third law
that
√
q
1 1
(2 2 ) 2 = − − 2.
√ p √
But − 2 is negative, so − 2 is not defined. Therefore, it only makes sense to use
the positive choice. Thus, for all n, even and odd, 21/n is defined by the formula
1 √
n
2 n = 2.
m
In a similar manner, for a general positive rational n, the third law implies that
m 1 √
2 n = (2m ) n = 2m .
n

But also,
m 1 √
2 n = (2 n )m = ( 2)m .
n

Thus,
m √ √
2m = ( 2)m .
n n
2n =

Finally, negative rational exponents are defined in the usual manner for negative
exponents:
m 1
2− n = m
2n
More generally, here is the final general definition. With this definition, the Laws
of Exponents hold for all rational exponents.

Definition 22. For a positive rational exponent m

n , and b > 0,
m √
n
√n
b n = bm = ( b)m . (23)

For a negative rational exponent − m

n,
m 1
b− n = m . (24)
bn

Remark 25. For b < 0, the same definitions make sense only when n is odd. For
1
example (−2) 4 is not defined.

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.1 Exponents and Roots 763

5 2 3
I Example 26. Compute the exact values of (a) 4 2 , (b) 64 3 , and (c) 81− 4 .
5
 1 5 √
a) 4 2 = 4 2 = ( 4)5 = 25 = 32

2
 1 2 √
3
b) 64 3 = 64 3 = ( 64)2 = 42 = 16

3 1 1 1 1 1
c) 81− 4 = 3 = 3 = √
4
= 3 =
( 81)3 3 27
1

81 4
81 4

I Example 27. Simplify the following expressions, and write them in the form xr :
2 1
2 1 x3  2
x− 3
4
a) x x ,
3 4 b) 1 , c)
x 4

2 1 2 1 8 3 11
a) x 3 x 4 = x 3 + 4 = x 12 + 12 = x 12
2
x3 2 1 8 3 5
b) 1 = x 3 − 4 = x 12 − 12 = x 12
x 4

 2 1 2 1 2 1
4
c) x− 3 = x− 3 · 4 = x− 12 = x− 6
p
5
√
I Example 28. Use rational exponents to simplify x, and write it as a single
radical.

5 √ √ 1  1  15 √
q
1 1 1
x = ( x) 5 = x 2 = x 2 · 5 = x 10 = 10 x

I Example 29. Use a calculator to approximate 25/8 .

Figure 8. 25/8 ≈ 1.542210825

Version: Fall 2007

764 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Irrational Exponents
√
What about irrational exponents? Is there a way to define numbers like 2 2 and 3π ? It
turns out that the answer is yes. While a rigorous definition of bs when s is irrational
is beyond the scope of this book, it’s not hard to see how one could proceed to √ find
a value for such a number. For example, if√we want to compute the value of 2 2 , we
√
can start with rational approximations for 2. Since 2 = 1.41421356237310 . . ., the
successive powers

21 , 21.4 , 21.41 , 21.414 , 21.4142 , 21.41421 , 21.414213 ,

21.4142135 , 21.41421356 , 21.414213562 , 21.4142135623 , . . .
√
should be closer and closer approximations to the desired value of 2 2.

In fact, using more advanced mathematical theory (ultimately based on the actual
construction of the real number system),
√
it can be shown that these powers approach
2
a single real number, and we define 2 to be that number. Using your calculator, you
can observe this convergence and obtain an approximation by computing the powers
above.

t f (t) = 2t
1 2
1.4 2.639015822
1.41 2.657371628
1.414 2.664749650
1.4142 2.665119089
1.41421 2.665137562
1.414213 2.665143104
1.4142135 2.665144027
1.41421356 2.665144138
1.414213562 2.665144142
1.4142135623 2.665144143
√ √
(a) Approximations of 2 2 (b) 2 2 ≈ 2.665144143
Figure 9.
√
The last value in the table in Figure 9(a) is a correct approximation of 2 2 to 10 digits
of accuracy.
√ Your calculator will obtain this same approximation when you ask it to
compute 2 2 directly (see Figure 9(b)).
In a similar manner, bs can be defined for any irrational exponent s and any b > 0.
Combined with the earlier work in this section, it follows that bs is defined for every
real exponent s.

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.1 Exponents and Roots 765

8.1 Exercises

In Exercises 1-12, compute the exact xmin, xmax, ymin, and ymax. Label
value. each graph with its equation. Drop
dashed vertical lines from each point
1. 3−5 of intersection to the x-axis, then shade
and label each solution of the given
2. 42 equation on the x-axis. Remember
to draw all lines with a ruler.
3. (3/2)3 iii. Solve each problem algebraically. Use
a calculator to approximate any radi-
4. (2/3)1 cals and compare these solutions with
those found in parts (i) and (ii).
5. 6−2
13. x2 = 5
6. 4−3
14. x2 = 7
7. (2/3)−3
15. x2 = −7
8. (1/3)−3
16. x2 = −3
9. 71
17. x3 = −6
10. (3/2)−4
18. x3 = −4
11. (5/6)3
19. x4 = 4
12. 32
20. x4 = −7
In Exercises 13-24, perform each of the
following tasks for the given equation. 21. x5 = 8

i. Load the left- and right-hand sides of 22. x5 = 4

the given equation into Y1 and Y2, re-
spectively. Adjust the WINDOW para- 23. x6 = −5
meters until all points of intersection
(if any) are visible in your viewing 24. x6 = 9
window. Use the intersect utility
in the CALC menu to determine the In Exercises 25-40, simplify the given
coordinates of any points of intersec- radical expression.
tion.
√
ii. Make a copy of the image in your 25. 49
viewing window on your homework √
paper. Label and scale each axis with 26. 121

4
Copyrighted material. See: http://msenux.redwoods.edu/IntAlgText/

Version: Fall 2007

766 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

√ 4
27. −36 47. 83
√ 3
28. −100 48. 625− 4
√
3 3
29. 27 49. 16 2
√
3 2
30. −1 50. 64 3
√
3 2
31. −125 51. 27 3
√
3 3
32. 64 52. 625 4
√
4 5
33. −16 53. 256 4
√
4 3
34. 81 54. 4− 2
√
4 3
35. 16 55. 256− 4
√
4 5
36. −625 56. 81− 4
√
5
37. −32
In Exercises 57-64, simplify the prod-
√
5 uct, and write your answer in the form
38. 243
xr .
√
5
39. 1024 5 5
57. x4 x4
√
5
40. −3125 5 5
58. x 3 x− 4
1 5

41.
p
(−2)2 and 59. x− 3 x 2
√ Compare
2
and contrast
( −2) . 3 3
60. x− 5 x 2
p
42.
√ Compare and contrast
4
(−3)4 and 4 4
61. x 5 x− 3
( 4 −3)4 .
5 1
p 62. x− 4 x 2
43.
√ Compare and contrast 3
(−5)3 and
( −5)3 .
3 2 3
63. x− 5 x− 2
p
44.
√ Compare and contrast
5
(−2)5 and 5 5
64. x− 4 x 2
( 5 −2)5 .

In Exercises 65-72, simplify the quo-

In Exercises 45-56, compute the exact
tient, and write your answer in the form
value.
xr .
3
45. 25− 2 5
x− 4
5
65. 1
46. 16− 4 x5

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.1 Exponents and Roots 767

2
x− 3
66. 1
x4
1
x− 2
67. 3
x− 5
5
x− 2
68. 2
x5
3
x5
69. 1
x− 4
1
x3
70. 1
x− 2
5
x− 4
71. 2
x3
1
x3
72. 1
x2

In Exercises 73-80, simplify the expres-

sion, and write your answer in the form
xr .
 1 4
3
73. x2

 1
− 1
x− 2
2
74.

 5
1
x− 4
2
75.

 − 3
− 15 2
76. x

 1
3
x− 2
2
77.

 1
− 1
x− 3
2
78.

 1
− 1
2
79. x5

 2
− 1
5
80. x 5

Version: Fall 2007

768 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

8.1 Answers

1 15. No real solutions.

1.
243
y y=x2
27 10
3.
8
1
5.
36
27 x
7. −10 10
8

9. 7
y=−7
125
11.
216 −10
√
13. Solutions: x = ± 5 √
3
17. x= −6
y y=x2 y
10 10 y=x3

y=5

x −1.8171
−10 −2.2361 2.2361 10 x
−10 10

y=−6

−10 −10

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.1 Exponents and Roots 769

√
19. Solutions: x = ± 4 4 27. Not a real number.
y
10 y=x4 29. 3

31. −5
y=4
33. Not a real number.
x
−10 −1.4142 1.4142 10 35. 2

37. −2

39. 4
−10 p √
41. (−2)2 = 2, while ( −2)2 is not
√
5 a real number.
21. x= 8
y 43. Both equal −5.
10 y=x5
y=8
1
45.
125

47. 16
x
−10 1.5157 10 49. 64

51. 9

53. 1024
−10
1
55.
64
23. No real solutions.
5
y 6
57. x2
10 y=x
13
59. x6
8
61. x− 15
19
x 63. x− 10
−10 10
29
65. x− 20
y=−5
1
67. x 10
17
−10 69. x 20
23
25. 7 71. x− 12

Version: Fall 2007

770 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

2
73. x3
5
75. x− 8
3
77. x− 4
1
79. x− 10

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.2 Exponential Functions 771

8.2 Exponential Functions

Let’s suppose that the current population of the city of Pleasantville is 10 000 and that
the population is growing at a rate of 2% per year. In order to analyze the population
growth over a period of years, we’ll try to develop a formula for the population as a
function of time, and then graph the result.
First, note that at the end of one year, the population increase is 2% of 10 000,
or 200 people. We would now have 10 200 people in Pleasantville. At the end of the
second year, take another 2% of 10 200, which is an increase of 204 people, for a total of
10 404. Because the increase each year is not constant, the graph of population versus
time cannot be a line. Hence, our eventual population function will not be linear.
To develop our population formula, we start by letting the function P (t) represent
the population of Pleasantville at time t, where we measure t in years. We will start
time at t = 0 when the initial population of Pleasantville is 10 000. In other words,
P (0) = 10 000. The key to understanding this example is the fact that the population
increases by 2% each year. We are making an assumption here that this overall growth
accounts for births, deaths, and people coming into and leaving Pleasantville. That is,
at the end of the first year, the population of Pleasantville will be 102% of the initial
population. Thus,

P (1) = 1.02P (0) = 1.02(10 000). (1)

We could multiply out the right side of this equation, but it will actually be more useful
to leave it in its current form.
Now each year the population increases by 2%. Therefore, at the end of the second
year, the population will be 102% of the population at the end of the first year. In
other words,

P (2) = 1.02P (1). (2)

If we replace P (1) in equation (2) with the result found in equation (1), then

P (2) = (1.02)(1.02)(10 000) = (1.02)2 (10 000). (3)

Let’s iterate one more year. At the end of the third year, the population will be
102% of the population at the end of the second year, so

P (3) = 1.02P (2). (4)

However, if we replace P (2) in equation (4) with the result found in equation (3),
we obtain

P (3) = (1.02)(1.02)2 (10 000) = (1.02)3 (10 000). (5)

The pattern should now be clear. The population at the end of t years is given by
the function
5
Copyrighted material. See: http://msenux.redwoods.edu/IntAlgText/

Version: Fall 2007

772 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

P (t) = (1.02)t (10 000).

It is traditional in mathematics and science to place the initial population in front in

this formula, writing instead

P (t) = 10 000(1.02)t . (6)

Our function P (t) is defined by equation (6) for all positive integers {1, 2, 3, . . .},
and P (0) = 10 000, the initial population. Figure 1 shows a plot of our function.
Although points are plotted only at integer values of t from 0 to 40, that’s enough to
show the trend of the population over time. The population starts at 10 000, increases
over time, and the yearly increase (the difference in population from one year to the
next) also gets larger as time passes.
P (population)
23000
P (t)=10 000(1.02)t

10000 t (years)
0 40
Figure 1. Graph of population P (t)
of Pleasantville for t = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .

I Example 7. We can now use the function P (t) to predict the population in later
years. Assuming that the growth rate of 2% continues, what will the population of
Pleasantville be after 40 years? What will it be after 100 years?

Substitute t = 40 and t = 100 into equation (6). The population in 40 years will be

P (40) = 10 000(1.02)40 ≈ 22 080,

and the population in 100 years will be

P (100) = 10 000(1.02)100 ≈ 72 446.

What would be different if we had started with a population of 12 000? By tracing

over our previous steps, it should be easy to see that the new formula would be

P (t) = 12 000(1.02)t .

Similarly, if the growth rate had been 3% per year instead of 2%, then we would have
ended up with the formula

P (t) = 10 000(1.03)t .

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.2 Exponential Functions 773

Thus, by letting P0 represent the initial population, and r represent the growth rate
(in decimal form), we can generalize the formula to

P (t) = P0 (1 + r)t . (8)

Note that our formula for the function P (t) is different from the previous functions
that we’ve studied so far, in that the input variable t is part of the exponent in the
formula. Thus, this is a new type of function.
Now let’s contrast the situation in Pleasantville with the population dynamics of
Ghosttown. Ghosttown also starts with a population of 10 000, but several factories
have closed, so some people are leaving for better opportunities. In this case, the
population of Ghosttown is decreasing at a rate of 2% per year. We’ll again develop a
formula for the population as a function of time, and then graph the result.
First, note that at the end of one year, the population decrease is 2% of 10 000,
or 200 people. We would now have 9 800 people left in Ghosttown. At the end of
the second year, take another 2% of 9 800, which is a decrease of 196 people, for a
total of 9 604. As before, because the decrease each year is not constant, the graph of
population versus time cannot be a line, so our eventual population function will not
be linear.
Now let the function P (t) represent the population of Ghosttown at time t, where
we measure t in years. The initial population of Ghosttown at t = 0 is 10 000, so
P (0) = 10 000. Since the population decreases by 2% each year, at the end of the first
year the population of Ghosttown will be 98% of the initial population. Thus,

P (1) = 0.98P (0) = 0.98(10 000). (9)

Each year the population deccreases by 2%. Therefore, at the end of the second year,
the population will be 98% of the population at the end of the first year. In other
words,

P (2) = 0.98P (1). (10)

If we replace P (1) in equation (10) with the result found in equation (9), then

P (2) = (0.98)(0.98)(10 000) = (0.98)2 (10 000). (11)

Let’s iterate one more year. At the end of the third year, the population will be
98% of the population at the end of the second year, so

P (3) = 0.98P (2). (12)

However, if we replace P (2) in equation (12) with the result found in equation (11),
we obtain

P (3) = (0.98)(0.98)2 (10 000) = (0.98)3 (10 000). (13)

The pattern should now be clear. The population at the end of t years is given by
the function

Version: Fall 2007

774 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

P (t) = (0.98)t (10 000),

or equivalently,

P (t) = 10 000(0.98)t . (14)

Our function P (t) is defined by equation (14) for all positive integers {1, 2, 3, . . .},
and P (0) = 10 000, the initial population. Figure 2 shows a plot of our function.
Although points are plotted only at integer values of t from 0 to 40, that’s enough to
show the trend of the population over time. The population starts at 10 000, decreases
over time, and the yearly decrease (the difference in population from one year to the
next) also gets smaller as time passes.
P (population)
10000

5000 P (t)=10 000(0.98)t

t (years)
00
40
Figure 2. Graph of population P (t)
of Ghosttown for t = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .

I Example 15. Assuming that the rate of decrease continues at 2%, predict the
population of Ghosttown after 40 years and after 100 years.

Substitute t = 40 and t = 100 into equation (14). The population in 40 years will be

P (40) = 10 000(0.98)40 ≈ 4457,

and the population in 100 years will be

P (100) = 10 000(0.98)100 ≈ 1326.

Note that if we had instead started with a population of 9 000, for example, then
the new formula would be

P (t) = 9 000(0.98)t .

Similarly, if the rate of decrease had been 5% per year instead of 2%, then we would
have ended up with the formula

P (t) = 10 000(0.95)t .

Thus, by letting P0 represent the initial population, and r represent the growth rate
(in decimal form), we can generalize the formula to

P (t) = P0 (1 − r)t . (16)

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.2 Exponential Functions 775

Definition
As noted before, our functions P (t) in our Pleasantville and Ghosttown examples are
a new type of function, because the input variable t is part of the exponent in the
formula.

Definition 17. An exponential function is a function of the form

f (t) = bt ,

where b > 0 and b 6= 1. b is called the base of the exponential function.

More generally, a function of the form

f (t) = Abt ,

where b > 0, b 6= 1, and A 6= 0, is also referred to as an exponential function. In

this case, the value of the function when t = 0 is f (0) = A, so A is the initial
amount.

In applications, you will almost always encounter exponential functions in the more
general form Abt . In fact, note that in the previous population examples, the function
P (t) has this form P (t) = Abt , with A = P0 , b = 1 + r in Pleasantville, and b = 1 − r
in Ghosttown. In particular, A = P0 is the initial population.
Since exponential functions are often used to model processes that vary with time,
we usually use the input variable t (although of course any variable can be used). Also,
you may be curious why the definition says b 6= 1, since 1t just equals 1. We’ll explain
this curiosity at the end of this section.

Graphs of Exponential Functions

We’ll develop the properties for the basic exponential function bt first, and then note
the minor changes for the more general form Abt . For a working example, let’s use base
b = 2, and let’s compute some values of f (t) = 2t and plot the result (see Figure 3).
y
16 f (t)=2t
t f (t) = 2t
1 2
2 4
3 8
4 16
t
4
(a) (b)
Figure 3. Plotting points (t, f (t)) defined by the function f (t) =
2t , with t = 1, 2, 3, 4, . . ..

Version: Fall 2007

776 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Recall from the previous section that 2t is also defined for negative exponents t
and the 0 exponent. Thus, the exponential function f (t) = 2t is defined for all integers.
Figure 4 shows a new table and plot with points added at 0 and negative integer
values.

t f (t) = 2t
−4 1/16 y
16 f (t)=2t
−3 1/8
−2 1/4
−1 1/2
0 0
1 2
2 4
3 8 t
4
4 16
(a) (b)
Figure 4. Plotting points (t, f (t)) defined by the function f (t) =
2t , with t = . . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3 . . ..
However, the previous section showed that 2t is also defined for rational and irra-
tional exponents. Therefore, the domain of the exponential function f (t) = 2t is the
set of all real numbers. When we add in the values of the function at all rational and
irrational values of t, we obtain a final continuous curve as shown in Figure 5.
y
16 f (t)=2t

t
4
Figure 5.
Note several properties of the graph in Figure 5:
a) Moving from left to right, the curve rises, which means that the function increases
as t increases. In fact, the function increases rapidly for positive t.
b) The graph lies above the t-axis, so the values of the function are always positive.
Therefore, the range of the function is (0, ∞).
c) The graph has a horizontal asymptote y = 0 (the t-axis) on the left side. This
means that the function almost “dies out” (the values get closer and closer to 0) as
t approaches −∞.

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.2 Exponential Functions 777

What about the graphs of other exponential functions with different bases? We’ll
use the calculator to explore several of these.
First, use your calculator to compare y1 (x) = 2x and y2 (x) = 3x . As can be seen
in Figure 6(a), the graph of 3x rises faster that 2x for x > 0, and dies out faster for
x < 0.
y y y3
10 10
y2 y2

y1 y1

x x
2 2
(a) (b)
Figure 6. Comparing functions y1 (x) = 2x , y2 (x) = 3x , and
y3 (x) = 4x
Next, add in y3 (x) = 4x . The result is shown in Figure 6(b). Again, increasing
the size of the base to b = 4 results in a function which rises even faster on the right
and likewise dies out faster on the left. If you continue to increase the size of the base
b, you’ll see that this trend continues. That’s not terribly surprising because, if we
compute the value of these functions at a fixed positive x, for example at x = 2, then
the values increase: 22 < 32 < 42 < . . .. Similarly, at x = −2, the values decrease:
2−2 > 3−2 > 4−2 > . . ..
All of the functions in our experiments so far share the properties listed in (a)–
(c) above: the function increases, the range is (0, ∞), and the graph has a horizontal
asymptote y = 0 on the left side. Now let’s try smaller values of the base b. First use
the calculator to plot the graph of y1 (x) = (1/2)x (see Figure 7(a)).
y
y3 10
y2

y1

x
2

(a) Graph of (b) Comparing functions

y1 (x) = (1/2)x y1 (x) = (1/2)x ,
y2 (x) = (1/3)x ,
and y3 (x) = (1/4)x
Figure 7.

Version: Fall 2007

778 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

This graph is much different. It rises rapidly to the left, and almost dies out on the
right. Compare this with y2 (x) = (1/3)x and y3 (x) = (1/4)x (see Figure 7(b)). As
the base gets smaller, the graph rises faster on the left, and dies out faster on the right.
Using reflection properties, it’s easy to understand the appearance of these last
three graphs. Note that
 x
1
= (2−1 )x = 2−x , (18)
2

x
so it follows that the graph of 21 is just a reflection in the y-axis of the graph of 2x
(see Figure 8).
y
5
g f

x
2
Figure 8. Comparing functions
f (x) = 2x and g(x) = (1/2)x = 2−x
Thus, we seem to have two different types of graphs, and therefore two types of expo-
nential functions: one type is increasing, and the other decreasing. Our experiments
above, along with a little more experimentation, should convince you that bx is increas-
ing for b > 1, and decreasing for 0 < b < 1. The first type of functions are called
exponential growth functions, and the second type are exponential decay functions.

Properties of Exponential Growth Functions: f (x) = bx with b > 1

• The domain is the set of all real numbers.

• Moving from left to right, the graph rises, which means that the function
increases as x increases. The function increases rapidly for positive x.

• The graph lies above the x-axis, so the values of the function are always positive.
Therefore, the range is (0, ∞).

• The graph has a horizontal asymptote y = 0 (the x-axis) on the left side. This
means that the function almost “dies out” (the values get closer and closer to
0) as x approaches −∞.

The second property above deserves some additional explanation. Looking at

Figure 6(b), it appears that y2 and y3 increase rapidly as x increases, but y1 ap-
pears to increase slowly. However, this is due to the fact that the graph of y1 (x) = 2x

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.2 Exponential Functions 779

is only shown on the interval [−2, 2]. In Figure 5, the same function is graphed on the
interval [−4, 4], and it certainly appears to increase rapidly in that graph. The point
here is that exponential growth functions eventually increase rapidly as x increases.
If you graph the function on a large enough interval, the function will eventually be-
come very steep on the right side of the graph. This is an important property of the
exponential growth functions, and will be explored further in the exercises.

Properties of Exponential Decay Functions: f (x) = bx with 0 < b < 1

• The domain is the set of all real numbers.

• Moving from left to right, the graph falls, which means that the function de-
creases as x increases. The function decreases rapidly for negative x.

• The graph lies above the x-axis, so the values of the function are always positive.
Therefore, the range is (0, ∞).

• The graph has a horizontal asymptote y = 0 (the x-axis) on the right side. This
means that the function almost “dies out” (the values get closer and closer to
0) as x approaches ∞.

Why do we refrain from using the base b = 1? After all, 1x is certainly defined:
it has the value 1 for all x. But that means that f (x) = 1x is just a constant linear
function – its graph is a horizontal line. Therefore, this function doesn’t share the same
properties as the other exponential functions, and we’ve already classified it as a linear
function. Thus, 1x is not considered to be an exponential function.
I Example 19. Plot the graph of the function f (x) = (1.5)x . Identify the range of
the function and the horizontal asymptote.
Since the base 1.5 is larger than 1, this is an exponential growth function. Therefore,
its graph will have a shape similar to the graphs in Figure 6. The graph rises, there
will be a horizontal asymptote y = 0 on the left side, and the range of the function is
(0, ∞). The graph can then be plotted by hand by using this knowledge along with
approximate values at x = −2, −1, 0, 1, 2. See Figure 9.
y
x f (x) = (1.5)x 5
−2 0.44
f
−1 0.67
0 1
1 1.5
2 2.25 x
3
(a) (b)
Figure 9. Graph of f (x) = (1.5)x

Version: Fall 2007

780 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

I Example 20. Plot the graph of the function g(x) = (0.2)x . Identify the range of
the function and the horizontal asymptote.

Since the base 0.2 is smaller than 1, this is an exponential decay function. Therefore,
its graph will have a shape similar to the graphs in Figure 7. The graph falls, there
will be a horizontal asymptote y = 0 on the right side, and the range of the function
is (0, ∞). The graph can then be plotted by hand by using this knowledge along with
approximate values at x = −2, −1, 0, 1, 2. See Figure 10.
y
g
x g(x) = (0.2)x 28
−2 25
−1 5
0 1
1 0.2
2 0.04
x
2
(a) (b)
Figure 10. Graph of g(x) = (0.2)x

I Example 21. Plot the graph of the function h(x) = 2x − 1. Identify the range of
the function and the horizontal asymptote.

The graph of h can be obtained from the graph of f (x) = 2x (see Figure 5) by a
vertical shift down 1 unit. Therefore, the horizontal asymptote y = 0 of the graph of f
will also be shifted down 1 unit, so the graph of h has a horizontal asymptote y = −1.
Similarly, the range of f will be shifted down to (−1, ∞) = Range(h). The graph can
then be plotted by hand by using this knowledge along with approximate values at
x = −2, −1, 0, 1, 2. See Figure 11.
y
x h(x) = 2x − 1
8
h
−2 −0.75
−1 −0.5
0 0
1 1
2 3 x
3
y=−1
(a) (b)
Figure 11. Graph of h(x) = 2x −1

In later sections of this chapter, we will also see more general exponential functions
of the form f (x) = Abx (in fact, the Pleasantville and Ghosttown functions at the

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.2 Exponential Functions 781

beginning of this section are of this form). If A is positive, then the graphs of these
functions can be obtained from the basic exponential graphs by vertical scaling, so the
graphs will have the same general shape as either the exponential growth curves (if
b > 1) or the exponential decay curves (if 0 < b < 1) we plotted earlier.

Version: Fall 2007

782 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.2 Exponential Functions 783

8.2 Exercises

1. The current population of Fortuna a. Set up an equation that models the

is 10,000 hearty souls. It is known that population P (t) as a function of time
the population is growing at a rate of t.
4% per year. Assuming this rate remains b. Use the model in the previous part to
constant, perform each of the following predict the population 50 years from
tasks. now.
c. Use your calculator to sketch the graph
a. Set up an equation that models the of the population over the next 50
population P (t) as a function of time years.
t.
b. Use the model in the previous part to 4. The population of the town of Hope-
predict the population 40 years from less currently numbers 25,000 individu-
now. als. It is known that the population is
c. Use your calculator to sketch the graph decaying at a rate of 6% per year. As-
of the population over the next 40 suming this rate remains constant, per-
years. form each of the following tasks.

2. The population of the town of Imag- a. Set up an equation that models the
ination currently numbers 12,000 people. population P (t) as a function of time
It is known that the population is grow- t.
ing at a rate of 6% per year. Assuming b. Use the model in the previous part to
this rate remains constant, perform each predict the population 40 years from
of the following tasks. now.
c. Use your calculator to sketch the graph
a. Set up an equation that models the of the population over the next 40
population P (t) as a function of time years.
t.
b. Use the model in the previous part to
In Exercises 5-12, perform each of the
predict the population 30 years from
following tasks for the given function.
now.
c. Use your calculator to sketch the graph a. Find the y-intercept of the graph of
of the population over the next 30 the function. Also, use your calcula-
years. tor to find two points on the graph to
the right of the y-axis, and two points
3. The population of the town of De- to the left.
spairia currently numbers 15,000 individ- b. Using your five points from (a) as a
uals. It is known that the population is guide, set up a coordinate system on
decaying at a rate of 5% per year. As- graph paper. Choose and label ap-
suming this rate remains constant, per- propriate scales for each axis. Plot
form each of the following tasks. the five points, and any additional
points you feel are necessary to dis-

6
Copyrighted material. See: http://msenux.redwoods.edu/IntAlgText/

Version: Fall 2007

784 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

cern the shape of the graph. 14.

c. Draw the horizontal asymptote with
y
a dashed line, and label it with its 5
equation.
d. Sketch the graph of the function.
e. Use interval notation to describe both
x
the domain and range of the function. 5

5. f (x) = (2.5)x

6. f (x) = (0.1)x
15.
7. f (x) = (0.75)x
y
5
8. f (x) = (1.1)x

9. f (x) = 3x + 1
x
5
10. f (x) = 4x −5

11. f (x) = 2x − 3

12. f (x) = 5x + 2 16.

y
In Exercises 13-20, the graph of an ex- 5
ponential function of the form f (x) =
bx + c is shown. The dashed red line is
a horizontal asymptote. Determine the
x
range of the function. Express your an- 5
swer in interval notation.

13.
y 17.
5
y
5
x
5
x
5

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.2 Exponential Functions 785

18. 27. f (x) = (5/2)x ; p = −3

y
5 28. f (x) = 9x ; p = 3

29. f (x) = 5x ; p = −4
x 30. f (x) = 9x ; p = 0
5
31. f (x) = (6/5)x ; p = −4

32. f (x) = (3/5)x ; p = 0

19.
y In Exercises 33-40, use your calcula-
5 tor to evaluate the function at the given
value p. Round your answer to the near-
est hundredth.
x
5 33. f (x) = 10x ; p = −0.7.

34. f (x) = 10x ; p = −1.60.

35. f (x) = (2/5)x ; p = 3.67.

20.
y 36. f (x) = 2x ; p = −3/4.
5
37. f (x) = 10x ; p = 2.07.

x 38. f (x) = 7x ; p = 4/3.

5
39. f (x) = 10x ; p = −1/5.

40. f (x) = (4/3)x ; p = 1.15.

In Exercises 21-32, compute f (p) at the

given value p. 41. This exercise explores the property
that exponential growth functions even-
21. f (x) = (1/3)x ; p = −4 tually increase rapidly as x increases. Let
f (x) = 1.05x . Use your graphing calcu-
22. f (x) = (3/4)x ; p = 1 lator to graph f on the intervals
(a) [0, 10] and (b) [0, 100].
23. f (x) = 5x ; p = 5 For (a), use Ymin = 0 and Ymax = 10.
For (b), use Ymin = 0 and Ymax = 100.
24. f (x) = (1/3)x ; p = 4 Make accurate copies of the images in
your viewing window on your homework
25. f (x) = 4x ; p = −4
paper. What do you observe when you
26. f (x) = 5x ; p = −3 compare the two graphs?

Version: Fall 2007

786 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

8.2 Answers

1.

a) P (t) = 10 000(1.04)t

b) P (40) ≈ 48 101

c)

5.

a) The y-intercept is (0, 1). Evaluate

the function at x = 1, 2, −1, −2 to
obtain the points (1, 2.5), (2, 6.25),
(−1, 0.4), (−2, 0.16) (other answers are
possible).

b) See the graph in part (d).

c) The horizontal asymptote is y = 0.

See the graph in part (d).

d)
y
3. f (x)=(2.5)x
10
a) P (t) = 15 000(0.95)t

b) P (50) ≈ 1 154

c)

x
y=0 3

e) Domain = (−∞, ∞), Range = (0, ∞)

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.2 Exponential Functions 787

7. d)

a) The y-intercept is (0, 1). Evaluate y f (x)=3x +1

the function at x = 1, 2, −1, −2 to 20
obtain the points (1, 0.75), (2, 0.56),
(−1, 1.34), (−2, 1.78) (other answers
are possible).

b) See the graph in part (d).

y=1
c) The horizontal asymptote is y = 0. x
See the graph in part (d). 3

d) e) Domain = (−∞, ∞), Range = (1, ∞)

y
5 11.
f (x)=(0.75)x
a) The y-intercept is (0, −2). Evalu-
ate the function at x = 1, 2, −1, −2
to obtain the points (1, −1), (2, 1),
(−1, −2.5), (−2, −2.75) (other answers
are possible).
x b) See the graph in part (d).
y=0 5
c) The horizontal asymptote is y = −3.
e) Domain = (−∞, ∞), Range = (0, ∞) See the graph in part (d).

9. d)
y f (x)=2x −3
a) The y-intercept is (0, 2). Evaluate 5
the function at x = 1, 2, −1, −2 to ob-
tain the points (1, 4), (2, 10), (−1, 1.34),
(−2, 1.11) (other answers are possi-
ble). x
5
b) See the graph in part (d).

c) The horizontal asymptote is y = 1. y=−3

See the graph in part (d).

e) Domain = (−∞, ∞), Range = (−3, ∞)

13. (−1, ∞)

15. (2, ∞)

17. (2, ∞)

Version: Fall 2007

788 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

19. (−2, ∞)

21. 81

23. 3125
1
25.
256
8
27.
125
1
29.
625
625
31.
1296
33. 0.20

35. 0.03

37. 117.49

39. 0.63

41.
a) The graph on the interval [0, 10] in-
creases very slowly. In fact, the graph
looks almost linear.

b) The graph on the interval [0, 100] in-

creases slowly at first, but then in-
creases very rapidly on the second half
of the interval.

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.3 Applications of Exponential Functions 789

8.3 Applications of Exponential Functions

In the preceding section, we examined a population growth problem in which the popu-
lation grew at a fixed percentage each year. In that case, we found that the population
can be described by an exponential function. A similar analysis will show that any
process in which a quantity grows by a fixed percentage each year (or each day, hour,
etc.) can be modeled by an exponential function. Compound interest is a good example
of such a process.

Discrete Compound Interest

If you put money in a savings account, then the bank will pay you interest (a percentage
of your account balance) at the end of each time period, typically one month or one
day. For example, if the time period is one month, this process is called monthly
compounding. The term compounding refers to the fact that interest is added to your
account each month and then in subsequent months you earn interest on the interest.
If the time period is one day, it’s called daily compounding.
Let’s look at monthly compounding in more detail. Suppose that you deposit $100
in your account, and the bank pays interest at an annual rate of 5%. Let the function
P (t) represent the amount of money that you have in your account at time t, where
we measure t in years. We will start time at t = 0 when the initial amount, called the
principal, is $100. In other words, P (0) = 100.
In the discussion that follows, we will compute the account balance at the end of
each month. Since one month is 1/12 of a year, P (1/12) represents the balance at the
end of the first month, P (2/12) represents the balance at the end of the second month,
etc.
At the end of the first month, interest is added to the account balance. Since the
annual interest rate 5%, the monthly interest rate is 5%/12, or .05/12 in decimal form.
Although we could approximate .05/12 by a decimal, it will be more useful, as well as
more accurate, to leave it in this form. Therefore, at the end of the first month, the
interest earned will be 100(.05/12), so the total amount will be
   
.05 .05
P (1/12) = 100 + 100 = 100 1 + . (1)
12 12
Now at the end of the second month, you will have the amount that you started that
month with, namely P (1/12), plus another month’s worth of interest on that amount.
Therefore, the total amount will be
   
.05 .05
P (2/12) = P (1/12) + P (1/12) = P (1/12) 1 + . (2)
12 12

If we replace P (1/12) in equation (2) with the result found in equation (1), then

7
Copyrighted material. See: http://msenux.redwoods.edu/IntAlgText/

Version: Fall 2007

790 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

.05 2
    
.05 .05
P (2/12) = 100 1 + 1+ = 100 1 + . (3)
12 12 12
Let’s iterate one more month. At the end of the third month, you will have the
amount that you started that month with, namely P (2/12), plus another month’s worth
of interest on that amount. Therefore, the total amount will be
   
.05 .05
P (3/12) = P (2/12) + P (2/12) = P (2/12) 1 + . (4)
12 12
However, if we replace P (2/12) in equation (4) with the result found in equation (3),
then
.05 2 .05 3
     
.05
P (3/12) = 100 1 + 1+ = 100 1 + . (5)
12 12 12
The pattern should now be clear. The amount of money you will have in the account
at the end of m months is given by the function
.05 m
 
P (m/12) = 100 1 + .
12
We can rewrite this formula in terms of years t by replacing m/12 by t. Then m = 12t,
so the formula becomes
.05 12t
 
P (t) = 100 1 + . (6)
12
What would be different if you had started with a principal of 200? By tracing over
our previous steps, it should be easy to see that the new formula would be
.05 12t
 
P (t) = 200 1 + .
12
Similarly, if the interest rate had been 4% per year instead of 5%, then we would have
ended up with the formula
.04 12t
 
P (t) = 100 1 + .
12
Thus, if we let P0 represent the principal, and r represent the annual interest rate (in
decimal form), then we can generalize the formula to
 r 12t
P (t) = P0 1 + . (7)
12
I Example 8. If the principal is $100, the annual interest rate is 5%, and interest
is compounded monthly, how much money will you have after ten years?
In formula (7), let P0 = 100, r = .05, and t = 10:
.05 12·10
 
P (10) = 100 1 +
12
We can use our graphing calculator to approximate this solution, as shown in Figure 1.

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.3 Applications of Exponential Functions 791

Figure 1. Computing the amount af-

ter compounding monthly for 10 years.

Thus, you would have $164.70 after ten years.

I Example 9. If the principal is $10 000, the annual interest rate is 5%, and interest
is compounded monthly, how much money will you have after forty years?

In formula (7), let P0 = 10 000, r = .05, and t = 40:

.05 12·40
 
P (40) = 10 000 1 + ≈ 73 584.17
12

Thus, you would have $73,584.17 after forty years.

These examples illustrate the “miracle of compound interest.” In the last exam-
ple, your account is more than seven times as large as the original, and your total
“profit” (the amount of interest you’ve received) is $63 584.17. Compare this to the
amount you would have received if you had withdrawn the interest each month (i.e.,
no compounding). In that case, your “profit” would only be $20 000:
  
months interest .05
years · · = 40 · 12 · (10 000) = 20 000
year month 12
The large difference can be attributed to the shape of the graph of the function P (t).
Recall from the preceding section that this is an exponential growth function, so as t
gets large, the graph will eventually rise steeply. Thus, if you can leave your money in
the bank long enough, it will eventually grow dramatically.
What about daily compounding? Let’s again analyze the situation in which the
principal is $100 and the annual interest rate is 5%. In this case, the time period over
which interest is paid is one day, or 1/365 of a year, and the daily interest rate is
5%/365, or .05/365 in decimal form. Since we are measuring time in years, P (1/365)
represents the balance at the end of the first day, P (2/365) represents the balance at
the end of the second day, etc. We’ll follow the same steps as in the earlier analysis for
monthly compounding.
At the end of the first day, you will have
   
.05 .05
P (1/365) = 100 + 100 = 100 1 + . (10)
365 365
At the end of the second day, you will have the amount that you started that day
with, namely P (1/365), plus another day’s worth of interest on that amount. Therefore,
the total amount will be

Version: Fall 2007

792 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

   
.05 .05
P (2/365) = P (1/365) + P (1/365) = P (1/365) 1 + . (11)
365 365
If we replace P (1/365) in equation (11) with the result found in equation (10), then
.05 2
    
.05 .05
P (2/365) = 100 1 + 1+ = 100 1 + . (12)
365 365 365
At the end of the third day, you will have the amount that you started that day
with, namely P (2/365), plus another day’s worth of interest on that amount. Therefore,
the total amount will be
   
.05 .05
P (3/365) = P (2/365) + P (2/365) = P (2/365) 1 + . (13)
365 365
Again, replacing P (2/365) in equation (13) with the result found in equation (12)
yields
.05 2 .05 3
     
.05
P (3/365) = 100 1 + 1+ = 100 1 + . (14)
365 365 365
Continuing this pattern shows that the amount of money you will have in the
account at the end of d days is given by the function
.05 d
 
P (d/365) = 100 1 + .
365
We can rewrite this formula in terms of years t by replacing d/365 by t. Then d = 365t,
so the formula becomes
.05 365t
 
P (t) = 100 1 + . (15)
365
More generally, if you had started with a principal of P0 and an annual interest rate
of r (in decimal form), then the formula would be
 r 365t
P (t) = P0 1 + . (16)
365
Comparing formulas (7) and (16) for monthly and daily compounding, it should
be apparent that the only difference is that the number 12 is used in the monthly
compounding formula and the number 365 is used in the daily compounding formula.
Looking at the respective analyses shows that this number arises from the portion of
the year that interest is paid (1/12 in the case of monthly compounding, and 1/365 in
the case of daily compounding). Thus, in each case, this number (12 or 365) also equals
the number of times that interest is compounded per year. It follows that if interest
is compounded quarterly (every three months, or 4 times per year), the formula would
be
 r 4t
P (t) = P0 1 + .
4

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.3 Applications of Exponential Functions 793

Similarly, if interest is compounded hourly (8760 times per year), the formula would
be
 r 8760t
P (t) = P0 1 + .
8760
Summarizing, we have one final generalization:

Discrete Compound Interest

If P0 is the principal, r is the annual interest rate, and n is the number of times
that interest is compounded per year, then the balance at time t years is
 r nt
P (t) = P0 1 + . (17)
n

I Example 18. If the principal is $100, the annual interest rate is 5%, and interest
is compounded daily, what will be the balance after ten years?

In formula (17), let P0 = 100, r = .05, n = 365, and t = 10:

.05 365·10
 
P (10) = 100 1 + ≈ 164.87
365

Thus, you would have $164.87 after ten years.

I Example 19. If the principal is $10 000, the annual interest rate is 5%, and
interest is compounded daily, what will be the balance after forty years?

In formula (17), let P0 = 10 000, r = .05, n = 365, and t = 40:

.05 365·40
 
P (40) = 10 000 1 + ≈ 73 880.44
365

Thus, you would have $73 880.44 after forty years.

As you can see from comparing Examples 8 and 18, and Examples 9 and 19, the
difference between monthly and daily compounding is generally small. However, the
difference can be substantial for large principals and/or large time periods.

I Example 20. If the principal is $500, the annual interest rate is 8%, and interest
is compounded quarterly, what will be the balance after 42 months?

42 months is 3.5 years, so let P0 = 500, r = .08, n = 4, and t = 3.5 in formula (17):
.08 4·3.5
 
P (5) = 500 1 + ≈ 659.74
4

Thus, you would have $659.74 after 42 months.

Version: Fall 2007

794 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Continuous Compound Interest and the Number e

Using formula (17), it is a simple matter to calculate the total amount for any type
of compounding. Although most banks compound interest either daily or monthly, it
could be done every hour, or every minute, or every second, etc. What happens to the
total amount as the time period shortens? Equivalently, what happens as n increases in
formula (17)? Table 1 shows the amount after one year with a principal of P0 = 100,
r = .05, and various values of n:

compounding n P (1)
monthly 12 105.11619
daily 365 105.12675
hourly 8760 105.12709
every minute 525600 105.12711
every second 31536000 105.12711
Table 1. Comparison of discrete compounding with
P0 = 100, r = .05, and t = 1 year.

Even if we carry out our computations to eight digits, it appears that the amounts in
the right hand column of Table 1 are stabilizing. In fact, using calculus, it can be
shown that these amounts do indeed get closer and closer to a particular number, and
we can calculate that number.
Starting with formula (17), we will let n approach ∞. In other words, we will let n
get larger and larger without bound, as we started to do in Table 1. The first step is
to use the Laws of Exponents to write
r  nr rt
 
 r nt
P0 1 + = P0 1 + .
n n
In the next step, replace n/r by m. Since n/r = m, it follows that r/n = 1/m, and we
have
 rt
r  nr rt 1 m
  
P0 1 + = P0 1 + .
n m
Now let n approach ∞. Since m = n/r and r is fixed, it follows that m also
approaches ∞. We can use the TABLE feature of the graphing calculator to investigate
the convergence of the expression in brackets as m approaches infinity.

• Load (1+1/m)m into the Y= menu of the graphing calculator, as shown in Figure 2(a).
Of course, you must use x instead of m and enter (1+1/X)^X.
• Use TBLSET and set Indepnt to Ask, select TABLE, then enter the numbers 10, 100,
1 000, 10 000, 100 000, and 1 000 000 to produce the result shown in Figure 2(b).
Note that (1+1/X)^X appears to converge to the number 2.7183. If you move
the cursor over the last result in the Y1 column, you can see more precision,
2.71828046932.

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.3 Applications of Exponential Functions 795

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2. Illustration of the convergence of (1 + 1/m)m to e as m increases to infinity

Note that the numbers in the second column in Figure 2(b) appear to stabilize.
Indeed, it can be shown by using calculus that the expression in brackets above gets
closer and closer to a single number, which is called e. To represent this convergence,
we write
1 m
 
1+ → e. (21)
m
e is an irrational number, approximately 2.7183, as shown by the computations in
Figure 2(b). It follows that
 rt
1 m

P0 1 + → P0 ert .
m
Because we took the discrete compound interest formula (17) and let the number
of times compounded per year (n) approach ∞, this process is known as continuous
compounding.

Continuous Compound Interest

If P0 is the principal, r is the annual interest rate, and interest is compounded

continuously, then the balance at time t years is

P (t) = P0 ert . (22)

Before working the next examples, find the buttons on your calculator for the num-
ber e and for the exponential function ex . Typing either e or e^(1) (using the ex
button) will yield an approximation to the number e, as shown in Figure 2(c). Com-
pare this approximation with the one you obtained earlier in Figure 2(b).

I Example 23. If the principal is $100, the annual interest rate is 5%, and interest
is compounded continuously, what will be the balance after ten years?

In formula (22), let P0 = 100, r = 0.05, and t = 10:

P (10) = 100e(0.05)(10)

Use your calculator to approximate this result, as shown in Figure 3.

Version: Fall 2007

796 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Figure 3. Computing the amount af-

ter compounding continuously for 10
years.

Thus, you would have $164.87 after ten years.

I Example 24. If the principal is $10,000, the annual interest rate is 5%, and
interest is compounded continuously, what will be the balance after forty years?

In formula (22), let P0 = 10 000, r = 0.05, and t = 40:

P (10) = 10 000e(0.05)(40) ≈ 73 890.56

Thus, you would have $73 890.56 after forty years.

Notice that the continuous compounding formula (22) is much simpler than the
discrete compounding formula (17). Unless the principal is very large or the time
period is very long, the preceding examples show that continuous compounding is also
a close approximation to daily compounding. In Example 23, the amount $164.87 is
the same (rounded to the nearest cent) as the amount for daily compounding found in
Example 18. With a larger principal and longer time period, the amount $73 890.56
in Example 24 using continuous compounding is still only about $10 more than the
amount $73 880.44 for daily compounding found in Example 19.

Remarks 25.

1. The number e may strike you as a mere curiosity. If so, that would be a big
misconception. The number e is actually one of the most important numbers in
mathematics (it’s probably the second most famous number, following π), and it
arises naturally as the limit described in (21) above. Using notation from calculus,
we write
1 m
 
lim 1 + = e ≈ 2.71828. (26)
m→∞ m
Although in our discussion above this limit arose in a man-made process, compound
interest, it shows up in a similar manner in studies of many natural phenomena.
We’ll look at some of these applications later in this chapter.
2. Likewise, the exponential function ex is one of the most important functions used
in mathematics, statistics, and many fields of science. For a variety of reasons, the
base e turns out to be the most natural base to use for an exponential function.
Consequently, the function f (x) = ex is known as the natural exponential function.

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.3 Applications of Exponential Functions 797

Future Value and Present Value

In this section we have derived two formulas, one for discrete compound interest, and
the other for continuous compound interest. However, in the examples presented so
far, we’ve only used these formulas to calculate future value: given a principal P0 and
interest rate r, how much will you have in your account in t years?
Another type of question we can solve is known as a present value problem: how
much money would you have to invest at interest r in order to have Q dollars in t years?
Here are a couple of examples:
I Example 27. How much money would you have to invest at 4% interest com-
pounded daily in order to have $8000 dollars in 6 years?
In this case, the principal P0 is unknown, and we substitute r = 0.04, n = 365, and
t = 6, into the discrete compounding formula (17). Since P (6) = 8000, we have the
equation
0.04 (365)(6)
 
8000 = P (6) = P0 1 + .
365
This equation can be solved by division:
8000
= P0
0.04 (365)(6)


1 + 365
Figure 4 shows a calculator approximation for this result.

Figure 4. The present value of $8000,

compounded daily for six years.
Thus, the present value is approximately P0 ≈ $6293.11. If this amount is invested now
at 4% compounded daily, then its future value in 6 years will be $8000.
I Example 28. How much money would you have to invest at 7% interest com-
pounded continuously in order to have $5000 dollars in 4 years?
As in the last example, the principal P0 is unknown, and this time r = 0.07 and t = 4
in the continuous compounding formula (22). Then P (4) = 5000 yields the equation
5000 = P (4) = P0 e(0.07)(4) .
As in the last example, this equation can also be solved by division:
5000
(0.07)(4)
= P0
e
A calculator approximation for this result is shown in Figure 5.

Version: Fall 2007

798 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Figure 5. The present value of $5000,

compounded continuously for four
years.

Thus, the present value is approximately P0 ≈ $3778.92. If this amount is invested now
at 7% compounded continuously, then its future value in 4 years will be $5000.

Additional Questions
In terms of practical applications, there are also other types of questions that would
be interesting to consider. Here are two examples:

1. If you deposit $1000 in an account paying 6% compounded continuously, how long

will it take for you to have $1500 in your account?
2. If you deposit $1000 in an account paying 5% compounded monthly, how long will
it take for your money to double?

Let’s look at the first question (the second is similar). In this case, P0 = 1000 and
r = 0.06. Inserting these values into the continuous compounding formula (22), we
obtain

P (t) = 1000e0.06t .

Now we want the future value P (t) of the account at some time t to equal $1500.
Therefore, we must solve the equation

1500 = 1000e0.06t .

However, now we have a problem, because the variable t is located in the exponent
of the expression on the right side of the equation. Although we could approximate
a solution graphically, we currently have no algebraic method for solving an equation
such as this, where the variable is in the exponent (these types of equations are called
exponential equations). Over the course of the next few sections, we will define another
type of function, the logarithm function, which will in turn provide us with a method
for solving exponential equations. Then we will return to these questions, and also
discuss additional applications.

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.3 Applications of Exponential Functions 799

8.3 Exercises

1. Suppose that you invest $15,000 at 8. Suppose that you invest $19,000 at
7% interest compounded monthly. How 2% interest compounded daily. How much
much money will be in your account in 4 money will be in your account in 9 years?
years? Round your answer to the nearest Round your answer to the nearest cent.
cent.

2. Suppose that you invest $14,000 at 9. Suppose that you can invest money
3% interest compounded monthly. How at 4% interest compounded monthly. How
much money will be in your account in 7 much should you invest in order to have
years? Round your answer to the nearest $20,000 in 2 years? Round your answer
cent. to the nearest cent.

3. Suppose that you invest $14,000 at 10. Suppose that you can invest money
4% interest compounded daily. How much at 6% interest compounded daily. How
money will be in your account in 6 years? much should you invest in order to have
Round your answer to the nearest cent. $1,000 in 2 years? Round your answer to
the nearest cent.
4. Suppose that you invest $15,000 at
8% interest compounded monthly. How 11. Suppose that you can invest money
much money will be in your account in 8 at 3% interest compounded daily. How
years? Round your answer to the nearest much should you invest in order to have
cent. $20,000 in 3 years? Round your answer
to the nearest cent.
5. Suppose that you invest $4,000 at
3% interest compounded monthly. How 12. Suppose that you can invest money
much money will be in your account in 7 at 3% interest compounded monthly. How
years? Round your answer to the nearest much should you invest in order to have
cent. $10,000 in 7 years? Round your answer
to the nearest cent.
6. Suppose that you invest $3,000 at
5% interest compounded monthly. How 13. Suppose that you can invest money
much money will be in your account in 4 at 9% interest compounded daily. How
years? Round your answer to the nearest much should you invest in order to have
cent. $4,000 in 9 years? Round your answer to
the nearest cent.
7. Suppose that you invest $1,000 at
3% interest compounded monthly. How 14. Suppose that you can invest money
much money will be in your account in 4 at 8% interest compounded daily. How
years? Round your answer to the nearest much should you invest in order to have
cent. $18,000 in 6 years? Round your answer
to the nearest cent.

8
Copyrighted material. See: http://msenux.redwoods.edu/IntAlgText/

Version: Fall 2007

800 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

15. Suppose that you can invest money much money will be in your account in 3
at 8% interest compounded daily. How years? Round your answer to the nearest
much should you invest in order to have cent.
$17,000 in 6 years? Round your answer
to the nearest cent. 28. Suppose that you invest $3,000 at
8% interest compounded continuously. How
16. Suppose that you can invest money much money will be in your account in 4
at 9% interest compounded daily. How years? Round your answer to the nearest
much should you invest in order to have cent.
$5,000 in 7 years? Round your answer to
the nearest cent. 29. Suppose that you invest $15,000 at
2% interest compounded continuously. How
In Exercises 17-24, evaluate the func- much money will be in your account in 4
tion at the given value p. Round your years? Round your answer to the nearest
answer to the nearest hundredth. cent.

17. f (x) = ex ; p = 1.57. 30. Suppose that you invest $8,000 at

2% interest compounded continuously. How
18. f (x) = ex ; p = 2.61. much money will be in your account in 6
years? Round your answer to the nearest
19. f (x) = ex ; p = 3.07. cent.

20. f (x) = ex ; p = −4.33. 31. Suppose that you invest $13,000 at

9% interest compounded continuously. How
21. f (x) = ex ; p = 1.42. much money will be in your account in 8
years? Round your answer to the nearest
22. f (x) = ex ; p = −0.8. cent.
23. f (x) = ex ; p = 4.75. 32. Suppose that you invest $16,000 at
4% interest compounded continuously. How
24. f (x) = ex ; p = 3.60. much money will be in your account in 6
years? Round your answer to the nearest
cent.
25. Suppose that you invest $3,000 at
4% interest compounded continuously. How
much money will be in your account in 9
33. Suppose that you can invest money
years? Round your answer to the nearest
at 6% interest compounded continuously.
cent.
How much should you invest in order to
26. Suppose that you invest $8,000 at have $17,000 in 9 years? Round your
8% interest compounded continuously. How answer to the nearest cent.
much money will be in your account in 7
34. Suppose that you can invest money
years? Round your answer to the nearest
at 8% interest compounded continuously.
cent.
How much should you invest in order to
27. Suppose that you invest $1,000 at have $5,000 in 6 years? Round your an-
2% interest compounded continuously. How swer to the nearest cent.

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.3 Applications of Exponential Functions 801

35. Suppose that you can invest money

at 8% interest compounded continuously.
How much should you invest in order to
have $10,000 in 6 years? Round your
answer to the nearest cent.

36. Suppose that you can invest money

at 6% interest compounded continuously.
How much should you invest in order to
have $17,000 in 13 years? Round your
answer to the nearest cent.

37. Suppose that you can invest money

at 2% interest compounded continuously.
How much should you invest in order to
have $13,000 in 8 years? Round your
answer to the nearest cent.

38. Suppose that you can invest money

at 9% interest compounded continuously.
How much should you invest in order to
have $10,000 in 15 years? Round your
answer to the nearest cent.

39. Suppose that you can invest money

at 7% interest compounded continuously.
How much should you invest in order to
have $18,000 in 10 years? Round your
answer to the nearest cent.

40. Suppose that you can invest money

at 9% interest compounded continuously.
How much should you invest in order to
have $14,000 in 12 years? Round your
answer to the nearest cent.

Version: Fall 2007

802 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

8.3 Answers

1. $19830.81

3. $17797.25

5. $4933.42

7. $1127.33

9. $18464.78

11. $18278.69

13. $1779.61

15. $10519.87

17. 4.81

19. 21.54

21. 4.14

23. 115.58

25. $4299.99

27. $1061.84

29. $16249.31

31. $26707.63

33. $9906.72

35. $6187.83

37. $11077.87

39. $8938.54

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.4 Inverse Functions 803

8.4 Inverse Functions

As we saw in the last section, in order to solve application problems involving expo-
nential functions, we will need to be able to solve exponential equations such as
1500 = 1000e0.06t or 300 = 2x .
However, we currently don’t have any mathematical tools at our disposal to solve for
a variable that appears as an exponent, as in these equations. In this section, we will
develop the concept of an inverse function, which will in turn be used to define the tool
that we need, the logarithm, in Section 8.5.

One-to-One Functions

Definition 1. A given function f is said to be one-to-one if for each value y in

the range of f , there is just one value x in the domain of f such that y = f (x).
In other words, f is one-to-one if each output y of f corresponds to precisely one
input x.

It’s easiest to understand this definition by looking at mapping diagrams and graphs
of some example functions.
I Example 2. Consider the two functions h and k defined according to the mapping
diagrams in Figure 1. In Figure 1(a), there are two values in the domain that are
both mapped onto 3 in the range. Hence, the function h is not one-to-one. On the
other hand, in Figure 1(b), for each output in the range of k, there is only one input
in the domain that gets mapped onto it. Therefore, k is a one-to-one function.

h k
1 3 1 3

2 2 4
(a) (b)
Figure 1. Mapping diagrams help to determine
if a function is one-to-one.

I Example 3. The graph of a function is shown in Figure 2(a). For this function
f , the y-value 4 is the output corresponding to two input values, x = −1 and x = 3 (see
the corresponding mapping diagram in Figure 2(b)). Therefore, f is not one-to-one.
Graphically, this is apparent by drawing horizontal segments from the point (0, 4) on
the y-axis over to the corresponding points on the graph, and then drawing vertical
segments to the x-axis. These segments meet the x-axis at −1 and 3.
9
Copyrighted material. See: http://msenux.redwoods.edu/IntAlgText/

Version: Fall 2007

804 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

y f

4
f
−1 4
x
−1 3
3

(a) (b)
Figure 2. A function which is not one-to-one.

I Example 4. In Figure 3, each y-value in the range of f corresponds to just one

input value x. Therefore, this function is one-to-one.

Graphically, this can be seen by mentally drawing a horizontal segment from each point
on the y-axis over to the corresponding point on the graph, and then drawing a vertical
segment to the x-axis. Several examples are shown in Figure 3. It’s apparent that
this procedure will always result in just one corresponding point on the x-axis, because
each y-value only corresponds to one point on the graph. In fact, it’s easiest to just
note that since each horizontal line only intersects the graph once, then there can be
only one corresponding input to each output.

y f

Figure 3. A
one-to-one function

The graphical process described in the previous example, known as the horizontal
line test, provides a simple visual means of determining whether a function is one-to-
one.

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.4 Inverse Functions 805

Horizontal Line Test

If each horizontal line intersects the graph of f at most once, then f is one-to-one.
On the other hand, if some horizontal line intersects the graph of f more than
once, then f is not one-to-one.

Remark 5. It follows from the horizontal line test that if f is a strictly increasing
function, then f is one-to-one. Likewise, every strictly decreasing function is also one-
to-one.

Inverse Functions
If f is one-to-one, then we can define an associated function g, called the inverse
function of f . We will give a formal definition below, but the basic idea is that the
inverse function g simply sends the outputs of f back to their corresponding inputs.
In other words, the mapping diagram for g is obtained by reversing the arrows in the
mapping diagram for f .

I Example 6. The function f in Figure 4(a) maps 1 to 5 and 2 to −3. Therefore,

the inverse function g in Figure 4(b) maps the outputs of f back to their corresponding
inputs: 5 to 1 and −3 to 2. Note that reversing the arrows on the mapping diagram
for f yields the mapping diagram for g.

f g
1 5 5 1

2 −3 −3 2
(a) (b)
Figure 4. Reversing the arrows on the mapping
diagram for f yields the mapping diagram for g.

Since the inverse function g sends the outputs of f back to their corresponding
inputs, it follows that the inputs of g are the outputs of f , and vice versa. Thus, the
functions g and f are related by simply interchanging their inputs and outputs.
The original function must be one-to-one in order to have an inverse. For example,
consider the function h in Example 2. h is not one-to-one. If we reverse the arrows
in the mapping diagram for h (see Figure 1(a)), then the resulting relation will not
be a function, because 3 would map to both 1 and 2.
Before giving the formal definition of an inverse function, it’s helpful to review the
description of a function given in Section 2.1. While functions are often defined by
means of a formula, remember that in general a function is just a rule that dictates
how to associate a unique output value to each input value.

Version: Fall 2007

 806 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Definition 7. Suppose that f is a given one-to-one function. The inverse func-

tion g is defined as follows: for each y in the range of f , define g(y) to be the
unique value x such that y = f (x).

To understand this definition, it’s helpful to look at a diagram:

y f
y

x
g(y)

Figure 5.

The input for g is any y-value in the range of f . Thus, the input in the above diagram
is a value on the y-axis. The output of g is the corresponding value on the x-axis which
satisfies the condition y = f (x). Note in particular that the x-value is unique because
f is one-to-one.
The relationship between the original function f and its inverse function g can be
described by: 10

Property 8. If g is the inverse function of f , then

x = g(y) ⇐⇒ y = f (x).

In fact, this is really the defining relationship for the inverse function. An easy way
to understand this relationship (and the entire concept of an inverse function) is to
realize that it states that inputs and outputs are interchanged. The inputs of g are the
outputs of f , and vice versa. It follows that the Domain and Range of f and g are
interchanged:

Property 9. If g is the inverse function of f , then

Domain(g) = Range(f ) and Range(g) = Domain(f ).

10 The ⇐⇒ symbol means that these two statements are equivalent: if one is true, then so is the other.

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.4 Inverse Functions 807

The defining relationship in Property 8 is also equivalent to the following two

identities, so these provide an alternative characterization of inverse functions:

Property 10. If g is the inverse function of f , then

g(f (x)) = x for every x in Domain(f )

and
f (g(y)) = y for every y in Domain(g).

Note that the first statement in Property 10 says that g maps the output f (x) back
to the input x. The second statement says the same with the roles of f and g reversed.
Therefore, f and g must be inverses.
Property 10 can also be interpreted to say that the functions g and f “undo”
each other. If we first apply f to an input x, and then apply g, we get x back again.
Likewise, if we apply g to an input y, and then apply f , we get y back again. So
whatever action f performs, g reverses it, and vice versa.

I Example 11. Suppose f (x) = x3 . Thus, f is the “cubing” function. What

operation will reverse the cubing process? Taking a cube root. Thus, the inverse of f
√
should be the function g(y) = 3 y.

Let’s verify Property 10:

√
3
g(f (x)) = g(x3 ) = x3 = x

and
√ √
f (g(y)) = f ( 3 y) = ( 3 y)3 = y.

I Example 12. Suppose f (x) = 4x − 1. f acts on an input x by first multiplying

by 4, and then subtracting 1. The inverse function must reverse the process: first add
1, and then divide by 4. Thus, the inverse function should be g(y) = (y + 1)/4.

Again, let’s verify Property 10:

(4x − 1) + 1 4x
g(f (x)) = g(4x − 1) = = =x
4 4
and
   
y+1 y+1
f (g(y)) = f =4 − 1 = (y + 1) − 1 = y.
4 4

Version: Fall 2007

808 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Remarks 13.

1. The computation g(f (x)), in which the output of one function is used as the input of
another, is called the composition of g with f . Thus, inverse functions “undo” each
other in the sense of composition. Composition of functions is an important concept
in many areas of mathematics, so more practice with composition of functions is
provided in the exercises.
2. If g is the inverse function of f , then f is also the inverse of g. This follows from
either Property 8 or Property 10. (Note that the labels x and y for the variables
are unimportant. The key idea is that two functions are inverses if their inputs and
outputs are interchanged.)

Notation: In order to indicate that two functions f and g are inverses, we usually
use the notation f −1 for g. The symbol f −1 is read “f inverse”. In addition, to avoid
confusion with the typical roles of x and y, it’s often useful to use different labels for
the variables. Rewriting Property 8 with the f −1 notation, and using new labels for
the variables, we have the defining relationship:

Property 14.

v = f −1 (u) ⇐⇒ u = f (v)

Likewise, rewriting Property 10, we have the composition relationships:

Property 15.

f −1 (f (z)) = z for every z in Domain(f )

and
−1
f (f (z)) = z for every z in Domain(f −1 )

However, the new notation comes with an important warning:

Warning 16.
1
f −1 does not mean
f
The −1 exponent is just notation in this context. When applied to a function, it
stands for the inverse of the function, not the reciprocal of the function.

The Graph of an Inverse Function

How are the graphs of f and f −1 related? Suppose that the point (a, b) is on the graph
of f . That means that b = f (a). Since inputs and outputs are interchanged for the
inverse function, it follows that a = f −1 (b), so (b, a) is on the graph of f −1 . Now (a, b)

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.4 Inverse Functions 809

and (b, a) are just reflections of each other across the line y = x (see the discussion
below for a detailed explanation), so it follows that the same is true of the graphs of f
and f −1 if we graph both functions on the same coordinate system (i.e., as functions
of x).
For example,√ consider the functions from Example 11. The functions f (x) = x3
−1 3
and f (x) = x are graphed in Figure 6 along with the line y = x. Several reflected
pairs of points are also shown on the graph.
y f y=x
5

f −1
x
5

Figure 6.√ Graphs of f (x) = x3 and

f −1 (x) = 3 x are reflections across the
line y = x.

To see why the points (a, b) and (b, a) are just reflections of each other across the
line y = x, consider the segment S between these two points (see Figure 7). It will
be enough to show: (1) that S is perpendicular to the line y = x, and (2) that the
intersection point P of the segment S and the line y = x is equidistant from each of
(a, b) and (b, a).
y y=x

(a,b)

P
S

(b,a)
x

Figure 7. Switching the abscissa and

ordinate reflects the point across the
line y = x.

1. The slope of S is
a−b
= −1,
b−a

Version: Fall 2007

810 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

and the slope of the line y = x is 1, so they are perpendicular.

2. The line containing S has equation y−b = −(x−a), or equivalently, y = −x+(a+b).
To find the intersection of S and the line y = x, set x = −x + (a + b) and solve for
x to get
a+b
x= .
2
Since y = x, it follows that the intersection point is
 
a+b a+b
P = , .
2 2
Finally, we can use the distance formula presented in section 9.6 to compute the
distance from P to (a, b) and the distance from P to (b, a). In both cases, the
computed distance turns out to be
|a − b|
√ .
2

Computing the Formula of an Inverse Function

How does one find the formula of an inverse function? In Example 11, it was easy to
see that the inverse of the “cubing” function must be the cube root function. But how
was the formula for the inverse in Example 12 obtained?
Actually, there is a simple procedure for finding the formula for the inverse function
(provided that such a formula exists; remember that not all functions can be described
by a simple formula, so the procedure will not work for such functions). The following
procedure works because the inputs and outputs (the x and y variables) are switched
in step 3.

Computing the Formula of an Inverse Function

1. Check the graph of the original function f (x) to see if it passes the horizontal
line test. If so, then f is one-to-one and you can proceed.
2. Write the formula in xy-equation form, as y = f (x).
3. Interchange the x and y variables.
4. Solve the new equation for y, if possible. The result will be the formula for
f −1 (x).

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.4 Inverse Functions 811

I Example 17. Let’s start by finding the inverse of the function f (x) = 4x − 1 from
Example 12.

Step 1: A check of the graph shows that f is one-to-one (see Figure 8).

Figure 8. The graph of f (x) = 4x−1

passes the horizontal line test.

Step 2: Write the formula in xy-equation form: y = 4x − 1

Step 3: Interchange x and y: x = 4y − 1

Step 4: Solve for y:

x = 4y − 1
=⇒ x + 1 = 4y
x+1
=⇒ =y
4
x+1
Thus, f −1 (x) = .
4
Figure 9 demonstrates that the graph of f −1 (x) = (x + 1)/4 is a reflection of the
graph of f (x) = 4x − 1 across the line y = x. In this figure, the ZSquare command in
the ZOOM menu has been used to better illustrate the reflection (the ZSquare command
equalizes the scales on both axes).

(a) (b)
Figure 9. Symmetry across the line y = x

Version: Fall 2007

812 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

I Example 18. This time we’ll find the inverse of f (x) = 2x5 + 3.

Step 1: A check of the graph shows that f is one-to-one (this is left for the reader to
verify).

Step 2: Write the formula in xy-equation form: y = 2x5 + 3

Step 3: Interchange x and y: x = 2y 5 + 3

Step 4: Solve for y:

x = 2y 5 + 3
=⇒ x − 3 = 2y 5
x−3
=⇒ = y5
2
r
5 x − 3
=⇒ =y
2
r
−1 5 x−3
Thus, f (x) = .
2

Again, note that the graph of f −1 (x) = 5 (x − 3)/2 is a reflection of the graph of
p

f (x) = 2x5 + 3 across the line y = x (see Figure 10).

(a) (b)
Figure 10. Symmetry across the line y = x

I Example 19. Find the inverse of f (x) = 5/(7 + x).

Step 1: A check of the graph shows that f is one-to-one (this is left for the reader to
verify).
5
Step 2: Write the formula in xy-equation form: y=
7+x
5
Step 3: Interchange x and y: x=
7+y

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.4 Inverse Functions 813

Step 4: Solve for y:

5
x=
7+y
=⇒ x(7 + y) = 5
5
=⇒ 7 + y =
x
5 5 − 7x
=⇒ y = −7=
x x
5 − 7x
Thus, f −1 (x) = .
x
I Example 20. This example is a bit more complicated: find the inverse of the
function f (x) = (5x + 2)/(x − 3).

Step 1: A check of the graph shows that f is one-to-one (this is left for the reader to
verify).
5x + 2
Step 2: Write the formula in xy-equation form: y=
x−3
5y + 2
Step 3: Interchange x and y: x=
y−3

Step 4: Solve for y:

5y + 2
x=
y−3
=⇒ x(y − 3) = 5y + 2
=⇒ xy − 3x = 5y + 2

This equation is linear in y. Isolate the terms containing the variable y on one side of
the equation, factor, then divide by the coefficient of y.

xy − 3x = 5y + 2
=⇒ xy − 5y = 3x + 2
=⇒ y(x − 5) = 3x + 2
3x + 2
=⇒ y =
x−5
3x + 2
Thus, f −1 (x) = .
x−5
I Example 21. According to the horizontal line test, the function h(x) = x2 is
certainly not one-to-one. However, if we only consider the right half or left half of
the function (i.e., restrict the domain to either the interval [0, ∞) or (−∞, 0]), then

Version: Fall 2007

814 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

the function would be one-to-one, and therefore would have an inverse (Figure 11(a)
shows the left half). For example, suppose f is the function

f (x) = x2 , x ≤ 0.

In this case, the procedure still works, provided that we carry along the domain condi-
tion in all of the steps, as follows:

Step 1: The graph in Figure 11(a) passes the horizontal line test, so f is one-to-one.

Step 2: Write the formula in xy-equation form:

y = x2 , x≤0

Step 3: Interchange x and y:

x = y2, y≤0

Note how x and y must also be interchanged in the domain condition.

Step 4: Solve for y:

√
y = ± x, y≤0

Now there are two choices for y, one positive and one negative, but the condition y ≤ 0
tells us that the negative choice is the correct one. Thus, the last statement is equivalent
to
√
y = − x.
√
Thus, f −1 (x) = − x. The graph of f −1 is shown in Figure 11(b), and the graphs of
both f and f −1 are shown in Figure 11(c) as reflections across the line y = x.

f y y f y y=x
5 5 5

x x x
5 5 5
f −1 f −1

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 11.

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.4 Inverse Functions 815

8.4 Exercises

In Exercises 1-12, use the graph to de- 4.

termine whether the function is one-to- y
one. 5

1.
y x
5 5

x
5 5.
y
5

2.
x
y 5
5

x 6.
5
y
5

3. x
5
y
5

x 7.
5 y
5

x
5

11
Copyrighted material. See: http://msenux.redwoods.edu/IntAlgText/

Version: Fall 2007

816 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

8. 12.
y y
5 5

x x
5 5

9. In Exercises 13-28, evaluate the com-

y position g(f (x)) and simplify your an-
5 swer.
9
13. g(x) = , f (x) = −2x2 + 5x − 2
x
x
5 5
14. f (x) = − , g(x) = −4x2 + x − 1
x
√
15. g(x) = 2 x, f (x) = −x − 3
10. 6
16. f (x) = 3x2 − 3x − 5, g(x) =
y x
5 √
17. g(x) = 3 x, f (x) = 4x + 1

18. f (x) = −3x − 5, g(x) = −x − 2

x
5
5
19. g(x) = −5x2 + 3x − 4, f (x) =
x

20. g(x) = 3x + 3, f (x) = 4x2 − 2x − 2

11. √
21. g(x) = 6 x, f (x) = −4x + 4
y
5 22. g(x) = 5x − 3, f (x) = −2x − 4
√
23. g(x) = 3 x, f (x) = −2x + 1
x
5 3
24. g(x) = , f (x) = −5x2 − 5x − 4
x
5
25. f (x) = , g(x) = −x + 1
x
2
26. f (x) = 4x2 + 3x − 4, g(x) =
x

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.4 Inverse Functions 817

27. g(x) = −5x + 1, f (x) = −3x − 2 32.

8 y
28. g(x) = 3x2 + 4x − 3, f (x) = 5
x

In Exercises 29-36, first copy the given

x
graph of the one-to-one function f (x) onto 5
your graph paper. Then on the same co-
ordinate system, sketch the graph of the
inverse function f −1 (x).

29. 33.
y y
5 5

x x
5 5

30. 34.
y y
5 5

x x
5 5

31. 35.
y y
5 5

x x
5 5

Version: Fall 2007

818 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

√
9
36. 52. f (x) = 8x + 2
y √
3
53. f (x) = 6x + 7
5
3x + 7
54. f (x) =
2x + 8
x
5
55. f (x) = −5x + 2

56. f (x) = 6x + 8

57. f (x) = 9x9 + 5

In Exercises 37-68, find the formula for
the inverse function f −1 (x). 58. f (x) = 4x5 − 9

37. f (x) = 5x3 − 5 9x − 3

59. f (x) =
9x + 7
38. f (x) = 4x7 − 3 √
60. f (x) = 3 9x − 7
9x − 3
39. f (x) = −
7x + 6 61. f (x) = x4 , x ≤ 0

40. f (x) = 6x − 4 62. f (x) = x4 , x ≥ 0

41. f (x) = 7x − 9 63. f (x) = x2 − 1, x ≤ 0

42. f (x) = 7x + 4 64. f (x) = x2 + 2, x ≥ 0

43. f (x) = 3x5 − 9 65. f (x) = x4 + 3, x ≤ 0

44. f (x) = 6x + 7 66. f (x) = x4 − 5, x ≥ 0

4x + 2 67. f (x) = (x − 1)2 , x ≤ 1

45. f (x) =
4x + 3
68. f (x) = (x + 2)2 , x ≥ −2
46. f (x) = 5x7 +4

4x − 1
47. f (x) =
2x + 2
√
48. f (x) = 7 8x − 3
√
3
49. f (x) = −6x − 4

8x − 7
50. f (x) =
3x − 6
√
51. f (x) = 7 −3x − 5

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.4 Inverse Functions 819

8.4 Answers

1. not one-to-one 31.

y
3. not one-to-one 5
5. not one-to-one

7. one-to-one
x
5
9. one-to-one

11. one-to-one
33.
9
13. − 2 y
2x − 5x + 2
5
√
15. 2 −x − 3
√
17. 3 4x + 1 x
5
125 15
19. − + −4
x2 x
√
21. 6 −4x + 4
35.
√
23. 3 −2x + 1 y
5
25. −5/x + 1

27. 15x + 11 x
5
29.
y
5 r
3 x+5
37.
5
x
5 6x − 3
39. −
7x + 9
x+9
41.
7
r
5 x + 9
43.
3

Version: Fall 2007

820 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

3x − 2
45. −
4x − 4
2x + 1
47. −
2x − 4

x3 + 4
49. −
6

x7 + 5
51. −
3

x3 − 7
53.
6
x−2
55. −
5
r
9 x − 5
57.
9

7x + 3
59. −
9x − 9
√
61. −4x
√
63. − x+1
√
65. −4x−3
√
67. − x+1

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.5 Logarithmic Functions 821

8.5 Logarithmic Functions

We can now apply the inverse function theory from the previous section to the exponen-
tial function. From Section 8.2, we know that the function f (x) = bx is either increasing
(if b > 1) or decreasing (if 0 < b < 1), and therefore is one-to-one. Consequently, f has
an inverse function f −1 .
As an example, let’s consider the exponential function f (x) = 2x . f is increasing,
has domain Df = (−∞, ∞), and range Rf = (0, ∞). Its graph is shown in Figure 1(a).
The graph of the inverse function f −1 is a reflection of the graph of f across the line
y = x, and is shown in Figure 1(b). Since domains and ranges are interchanged, the
domain of the inverse function is Df −1 = (0, ∞) and the range is Rf −1 = (−∞, ∞).
y f y=x y y=x
5 5

f −1

x x
5 5

(a) (b)
Figure 1. The graphs of f (x) = 2x and its inverse f −1 (x) are reflec-
tions across the line y = x.

Unfortunately, when we try to use the procedure given in Section 8.4 to find a
formula for f −1 , we run into a problem. Starting with y = 2x , we then interchange x
and y to obtain x = 2y . But now we have no algebraic method for solving this last
equation for y. It follows that the inverse of f (x) = 2x has no formula involving the
usual arithmetic operations and functions that we’re familiar with. Thus, the inverse
function is a new function. The name of this new function is the logarithm of x to base
2, and it’s denoted by f −1 (x) = log2 (x).
Recall that the defining relationship between a function and its inverse (Property
14 in Section 8.4) simply states that the inputs and outputs of the two functions
are interchanged. Thus, the relationship between 2x and its inverse log2 (x) takes the
following form:

v = log2 (u) ⇐⇒ u = 2v

More generally, for each exponential function f (x) = bx (b > 0, b 6= 1), the inverse
function f −1 (x) is called the logarithm of x to base b, and is denoted by logb (x). The
defining relationship is given in the following definition.

12
Copyrighted material. See: http://msenux.redwoods.edu/IntAlgText/

Version: Fall 2007

822 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Definition 1. If b > 0 and b 6= 1, then the logarithm of u to base b is defined

by the relationship

v = logb (u) ⇐⇒ u = bv . (2)

In order to understand the logarithm function better, let’s work through a few
simple examples.

I Example 3. Compute log2 (8).

Label the required value by v, so v = log2 (8). Then by (2), using b = 2 and u = 8, it
follows that 2v = 8, and therefore v = 3 (solving by inspection).
In the last example, note that log2 (8) = 3 is the exponent v such that 2v = 8. Thus,
in general, one way to interpret the definition of the logarithm in (2) is that logb (u)
is the exponent v such that bv = u. In other words, the value of the logarithm is the
exponent!

I Example 4. Compute log10 (10 000).

Again, label the required value by v, so v = log10 (10 000). By (2), it follows that
10v = 10 000, and therefore v = 4. Note that here again we have found the exponent
v=4 that is needed for base 10 in order to get 10v = 10 000.

I Example 5. Compute log3 19 .

 
1
v = log3
9
1
=⇒ 3v = by (2)
9
1
=⇒ v = −2 since 3−2 =
9

I Example 6. Solve the equation log5 (x) = 1.

log5 (x) = 1
=⇒ 51 = x by (2)
=⇒ x = 5

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.5 Logarithmic Functions 823

I Example 7. Solve the equation logb (64) = 3 for b.

logb (64) = 3
=⇒ b3 = 64 by (2)
√
3
=⇒ b = 64 = 4

I Example 8. Solve the equation log1/2 (x) = −2.

log1/2 (x) = −2
 −2
1
=⇒ =x by (2)
2
1 1
=⇒ x = = =4
1 2 1


2 4

The composition relationships in Property 15 of Section 8.4, applied to bx and

logb (x), become

Property 9.

logb (bx ) = x (10)

and

blogb (x) = x. (11)

Both equations are important. Note that (11) again shows that the logb (x) is the
exponent v such that bv = x. Equation (10) will be used frequently in this and later
sections to help us solve exponential equations.
Logarithmic functions are used in many areas of science and engineering. For ex-
ample, they are used to define the Richter scale for the magnitudes of earthquakes, the
decibel scale for the loudness of sound, and the astronomical scale for stellar brightness.
They are also important tools for use in computation (as we will see in Section 8.8).
Our main use of logarithms in this textbook will be to solve exponential equations, and
thereby help us study physical phenomena that are described by exponential functions
(as in Section 8.7).

Computing Logarithms
In Examples 3–8 above, we were able to compute the logarithms by converting to
exponential equations that could be solved by inspection. But it’s easy to see that most
of the time this won’t work. For example, how would we compute the value of log2 (7)?

Version: Fall 2007

824 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Fortunately, mathematicians have found other methods for computing logarithms to

high accuracy, and they can now be easily approximated using a calculator or computer.
Your calculator has built-in buttons for computing two different logarithms, log10 (x)
and loge (x). log10 (x) is called the common logarithm, and loge (x) is called the natural
logarithm.
Common Logarithm: The common logarithm log10 (x) is computed using the LOG
button on your calculator. Notice also that its inverse function 10x , can be computed
using the same button in conjunction with the 2ND button. The common logarithm is
usually the most convenient one to use for computations involving scientific notation
(because we use a base 10 number system), and therefore is the logarithm most often
used in the physical sciences. Because of that, it’s often just abbreviated by log(x),
and we’ll do that as well in the remainder of the text.

Common Logarithm. log(x) and log10 (x) are equivalent notations. Thus, we
have the defining relationship

v = log(u) ⇐⇒ u = 10v .

The composition properties for the common logarithm are

log(10x ) = x (12)

and

10log(x) = x.

Natural Logarithm: The natural logarithm loge (x) is computed using the LN
button on your calculator. Its inverse function, ex , is computed using the same button
in conjunction with the 2ND button. The natural logarithm turns out to be the most
convenient one to use in mathematics, because a lot of formulas, especially in calcu-
lus, are much simpler when the natural logarithm is used. The natural logarithm is
abbreviated by ln(x).

Natural Logarithm. ln(x) and loge (x) are equivalent notations. Thus, we have
the defining relationship

v = ln(u) ⇐⇒ u = ev .

The composition properties for the common logarithm are

ln(ex ) = x (13)

and

eln(x) = x.

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.5 Logarithmic Functions 825

Note that when using your calculator to compute log(x) and ln(x), you will usually
only obtain approximate values, as these values frequently are irrational numbers.
What about other bases? You can also compute these on your calculator, but we’ll
first need to develop the Change of Base Formula in the next section. However, at this
point, we can at least solve exponential equations involving bases 10 and e, as shown
in the next two examples.

I Example 14. Solve the equation 704 = 2(10)x .

The first step is to isolate the exponential on the right side by dividing both sides by
2:

352 = 10x

Then simply apply the log10 (x) function to both sides of the equation:

log10 (352) = log10 (10x )

But (10) implies that log10 (10x ) = x. Therefore, x = log10 (352) = log(352) is the exact
solution. The approximate value, using a calculator, is 2.546542663 (see Figure 2).
Alternatively, instead of taking the logarithm of both sides in the second step, you
can apply (2) to the equation 352 = 10x to get x = log10 (352).

Figure 2. Approximation of log(352) =

log10 (352).

This last example shows how logarithms can be used for solving exponential equa-
tions. The basic strategy is to first isolate the exponential on one side of the equation,
and then take appropriate logarithms of both sides. Here’s one more example for now,
and then we’ll return to this process repeatedly in the remaining sections, especially
when we work with application problems.

I Example 15. Solve the equation 30 = 20ex .

First isolate the exponential on the right side by dividing both sides by 20:

1.5 = ex

This time, since the base of the exponential function is e, apply the natural logarithm
function to both sides:

loge (1.5) = loge (ex )

Version: Fall 2007

826 Chapter 8 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Simplify the right side, since loge (ex ) = x by (10):

loge (1.5) = x

Therefore, x = loge (1.5) = ln(1.5) is the exact solution. The approximate value, using
a calculator, is 0.4054651081 (see Figure 3).

Figure 3. Approximation
of ln 1.5 = loge (1.5).

In the next section, we’ll learn how to solve exponential equations involving other
bases.

Graphs of Logarithmic Functions

At the beginning of this section, we looked at the graphs of f (x) = 2x and its inverse
function f −1 (x) = log2 (x). More generally, the graph of the exponential function
f (x) = bx for b > 1 is shown in Figure 4(a), along with its inverse logarithmic function
f −1 (x) = logb (x). According to Section 8.4, the two graphs are reflections across the
line y = x. Similarly, the graph for 0 < b < 1 is shown in Figure 4(b).

y f y=x f y y=x

f −1
x x
f −1

(a) b > 1 (b) 0 < b < 1

Figure 4. The graphs of f (x) = bx and f −1 (x) = logb (x) are reflec-
tions across the line y = x.

Because domains and ranges of inverse functions are interchanged, it follows that

Version: Fall 2007

 Section 8.5 Logarithmic Functions 827

Property 16.

Domain(logb (x)) = (0, ∞)

and

Range(logb (x)) = (−∞, ∞).

In particular, note that the logarithm of a negative number, as well as the logarithm
of 0, are not defined.

Two particular points on the graph of the logarithm are noteworthy. Since b0 = 1,
it follows that logb (1) = 0, and therefore the x-intercept of the graph of logb (x) is (1, 0).
Similarly, since b1 = b, it follows that logb (b) = 1, and therefore (b, 1) is on the graph.

Property 17.

logb (1) = 0 and logb (b) = 1

Finally, since the graph of bx has a horizontal asymptote y = 0, the graph of logb (x)
must have a vertical asymptote x = 0. This behavior is a consequence of the fact
that inputs and outputs of inverse functions are interchanged, and can be observed in
Figure 4.
In the final example below, we’ll apply a transformation to the logarithm and see
how that affects the graph.
I Example 18. Plot the graph of the function f (x) = log2 (x + 1).
The graph of f (x) = log2 (x + 1) will be the same as the graph of g(x) = log2 (x) shifted
one unit to the left. The graph of g is shown in Figure 1(b). The x-intercept (1, 0) on
the graph of g will be shifted one unit to the left to (0, 0) on the graph of f . Likewise,
the vertical asymptote x = 0 on the graph of g will be shifted one unit to the left to
the line x = −1 on the graph of f . The final graph of f is shown in Figure 5.

y
5

x
5

Figure 5. The graph

of f (x) = log2 (x + 1).

Version: Fall 2007