Notes by Abhimanyu Kumar | B.Tech.

(CS), IIT Delhi | Rank 51, 68th BPSC

Food Preservation (Pasteurization) 🥛🧑‍🔬

● Food preservation ensures food safety by removing or killing harmful
microbes 🦠.
● Pasteurization is a heat-treatment process where liquids, particularly
milk, are heated to kill pathogenic bacteria while preserving nutrients.
○ High-temperature short-time (HTST) pasteurization heats milk to
72°C (162°F) for 15 seconds ⏱️ before cooling it rapidly to about
4°C ❄️.
○ This process kills harmful bacteria like E. coli 🦠 and Salmonella
🍳 without altering the taste of milk.
Pasteurization Methods 📊

Method Temperature Time Application

High-temp, short-time 72°C (162°F) 15 sec Milk, fruit juices 🧃

(HTST)

Ultra-pasteurization 135°C (275°F) 2–5 sec Dairy, cream 🥛

(UHT)

● Louis Pasteur 🧑‍🔬 pioneered this technique in the 19th century to prevent
the spoilage of liquids such as wine 🍷 and beer 🍺.
● It ensures safe consumption of perishable beverages like milk, extending
their shelf life by preventing the growth of microorganisms.

Types of Mixtures: Solution, Suspension, and Colloid 🧑‍🔬🧪

Mixtures can be classified into solutions, suspensions, and colloids based on
their particle size, homogeneity, and behavior. Let’s explore each type in detail.

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1. Solution 💧🔬
● Definition: A solution is a homogeneous mixture where the solute is
completely dissolved in the solvent, resulting in uniform particle
distribution.
● Example: Salt water 🧂🌊 is a classic solution, where salt (NaCl) is
evenly distributed in water.

Key Characteristics of Solutions:

Characteristic Details

Homogeneity 🟰 solute particles are evenly distributed.

Particle Size 📏 between 0.01 to 1 nanometers.

Dissolution 🧂💧 Solute dissolves at the molecular or ionic level,

taking up space between solvent molecules.

No Filtration 🚫🔍 Particles do not settle down → cannot be

separated by filtration.

Light Scattering 🌟🚫 do not scatter light, particles are too small to

deflect light rays.

2. Suspension 🏖️⚗️
● Definition: A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture where the particles
are large and can be easily seen. These particles do not dissolve and
tend to settle at the bottom over time.
● Example: Chalk in water 🧂💦 represents a suspension, where chalk
particles are suspended in the water but eventually settle down.

Key Characteristics of Suspensions:

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Characteristic Details

Heterogeneity ❌ not evenly distributed.

Particle Size 📏 large, typically greater than 1000 nanometers.

Separation on settle over time due to gravity, layer at the bottom.

Standing 🛑
Filtration ✅ Particles can be separated from mixture using filtration
methods.

Light Scattering Large particles scatter light, which can make the path of
🌟✅ a laser visible in the suspension (Tyndall effect).

3. Colloid 🥛🌀
● Definition: A colloid is a mixture that appears homogeneous but is
actually heterogeneous. The particles in a colloid are intermediate in size
between those in solutions and suspensions.
● Example: Milk 🥛 is a colloid, where fat droplets are dispersed
throughout the liquid but are not dissolved.

Colloid Types 🌐
Type Dispersed Dispersing medium Example
Phase

Emulsion Liquid Liquid Milk

🥛
Foam 🎈 Gas Liquid Shaving foam, whipped
cream 🍦
Gel 🍮 Liquid Solid Jelly, gelatin

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 Notes by Abhimanyu Kumar | B.Tech. (CS), IIT Delhi | Rank 51, 68th BPSC

Key Characteristics of Colloids:

Characteristic Details

Heterogeneity ❌🟰 Though it looks uniform, colloids are heterogeneous with

microscopic particles.

Particle Size 📏 1 to 1000 nanometers in size

No Separation on do not settle

Standing ❌
No Filtration 🚫🔍 cannot be separated by filtration.

Light Scattering 🌟✅ Colloids scatter light, causing the Tyndall effect. This is why a
beam of light is visible through milk.

Tyndall effect: Not in salt water (left glass); Yes in milk water (right glass)

Colloid Behavior in Daily Life 🌫️:

● Colloids are common in many everyday materials:
○ Paints 🎨: Pigment particles are suspended in a liquid base, forming a
colloid.

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○ Medications 💊: Many pharmaceutical solutions are colloidal, where

active ingredients are dispersed in a medium for better absorption.

Comparison of Solution, Suspension, and Colloid 📊

Property Solution 💧 Suspension 🏖️ Colloid 🌀
Appearance Clear, Cloudy, Cloudy, particles not
transparent particles visible individually
visible

Particle Size 📏 0.01–1 nm >1000 nm 1–1000 nm

Homogeneity Homogeneous Heterogeneous Heterogeneous

(appears
homogeneous)

Separation on No Yes No
Standing 🛑
Filtration 🚫🔍 No separation Can be Cannot be separated
by filtration separated

Light Scattering No Yes Yes

(Tyndall Effect) 🌟

Chromatography 🧪🔍
● Chromatography is a laboratory technique used to separate components
of a mixture based on their movement through a stationary and mobile
phase.
● It relies on the affinity of different substances for the two phases:

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○ Stationary phase 🏔️: A solid or liquid that stays in place (e.g.,

paper, gel).
○ Mobile phase 💧: A liquid or gas that moves over the stationary
phase (e.g., water, ethanol).

Periodic Table 📅🔬

● Periodic Table organizes elements by atomic number and electronic

structure.
● Elements in the same group have similar properties due to similar
valence configurations.
● Periodic trends in atomic size, ionization energy, electronegativity, and
electron affinity are crucial for understanding element behavior.
● Metals dominate the left and center, while non-metals are on the right,
with metalloids along the zig-zag line.
● Modern Periodic Law emphasizes the role of atomic number over atomic
mass in determining element properties.

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Historical Development:

● Johann Dobereiner introduced Triads (groups of three elements with

similar properties).
● John Alexander Newlands proposed the Law of Octaves, noting
periodicity every eighth element.
● Dmitri Mendeleev developed the Periodic Law based on atomic weights,
predicting undiscovered elements.
● Henry Moseley established the Modern Periodic Law, arranging
elements by atomic number.

Periodic Trends:

● Atomic Radius:
○ Decreases across a period due to increasing nuclear charge.
○ Increases down a group as electrons are added to higher energy
levels.
● Ionic Radius:
○ Cations (+ve charged ions) are smaller than their parent atoms.
○ Anions (-ve charged ions) are larger due to electron repulsion.
● Ionization Enthalpy: energy required to remove an electron.
○ Increases across a period; decreases down a group.
○ Maxima at noble gases, minima at alkali metals.
● Electron Gain Enthalpy: energy change when an electron is added to a neutral
gaseous atom to form a negative ion.
○ Generally more negative across a period; less negative down a
group.
○ Halogens have highly negative electron gain enthalpies.
● Electronegativity: ability of an atom in a chemical bond to attract shared electrons
towards itself.
○ Increases across a period; decreases down a group.
○ Highest in fluorine.

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Metals, Non-metals, and Metalloids:

● Metals: Majority of elements, good conductors, malleable, ductile.

● Non-metals: Poor conductors, brittle (solid), gaseous states common.
● Metalloids: Exhibit properties of both metals and non-metals (e.g.,
silicon, germanium).

Metals and Non-metals

Physical Properties of Metals

● State: Solid at room temperature (except Hg – mercury – which is liquid

at room temp.)
● Metallic Lustre: Pure metals have a shiny surface.
● Malleability: Ability to be hammered into thin sheets (gold and silver are
the most malleable metals).
● Ductility: Ability to be drawn into wires (Gold is the most ductile metal →
gold can form wires up to 2 km from 1g).
● Hardness: Varies among metals; generally hard.
● Melting and boiling points: High (except Caesium and Gallium which
have very low melting points)
● Conductivity:
○ Heat: Good conductors; silver and copper are the best.
○ Electricity: Good conductors; metals like copper are used in
electrical wires.
● Sonorous: Produce sound when struck (e.g., school bells made of metals).
● Sea of electrons: Metals consist of atoms that share electrons freely in
what is known as a sea of electrons → enable conduction

Physical Properties of Non-metals

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● State at Room Temperature: Mostly solids or gases, except bromine

(liquid).
● Lustre: Generally not shiny (except – iodine is lustrous).
● Hardness: Generally softer compared to metals.
● Electrical Conductivity: Poor conductors, except graphite which conducts
electricity.

⚡ Reactivity of Metals
● Reactivity of metals refers to how readily they participate in chemical
reactions, especially with oxygen, water, and acids.
● The more reactive a metal, the faster it reacts with other substances like
oxygen or water.

Reaction of Conclusion
Metals with

Air/Oxygen - Na, K: Doesn’t need to be heated + Reacts with oxygen

and catches fire + Kept in kerosene to prevent contact
with air
- Mg: Burns in air with a white dazzling flame
- Al, Zn, Fe, Cu: Reacts when heated. Copper doesn’t
burn → becomes black when heated in air (CuO)
- Au, Ag: don’t react with oxygen at all. Called Noble
metals.
- Amphoteric Oxides: Some metal oxides (e.g., Al₂O₃,
ZnO) exhibit both acidic and basic properties.

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Water
- Na, K: React violently with cold water, producing metal
hydroxides and hydrogen gas.

Na + H20 → NaOH + H2

- Ca: Reacts with cold water to → But releases less heat than
Na, K
- Mg: Reacts with hot water
- Al, Fe, Zn: Reacts with steam
- Cu, Pb, Au, Ag: Do NOT react at all with water

Acids
- Metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series can displace
hydrogen from dilute acids, producing salts and hydrogen
gas.

Mg + 2HCl → MgCl₂ + H₂↑

- Metals like copper do not react with dilute hydrochloric acid.

Other metals
- Displacement Reactions: More reactive metals can displace
less reactive metals from their compounds.

Fe + CuSO₄ → FeSO₄ + Cu

🧪 Reactivity Series of Metals:

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Elemental Composition of Earth 🌍🪨

● The Earth’s crust is composed of a mixture of different elements, but
some are far more abundant than others.
○ Oxygen 🧪 is the most abundant element, making up about 46.6%
of the crust by weight.
○ Silicon 🪨 is the second most abundant element, comprising 27.7%
of the crust.

Major Elements in the Earth's Crust 🌍

Element 🧪 Percentage by Weight

Oxygen (O) ⚛️ 46.6%

Silicon (Si) 🪨 27.7%

Aluminum (Al) ⚡ 8.1%

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Iron (Fe) 🧲 5.0%

● These elements form the backbone of rocks and minerals in the Earth’s
crust, such as quartz (SiO₂) and feldspar.

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