BIOMOLECULES

Biomolecules are critical organic compounds essential for life, categorized into carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Carbohydrates, including monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides, provide energy and structural support. Lipids,
such as fats, phospholipids, and steroids, are hydrophobic and function in energy storage, membrane formation, and signaling.
Proteins, composed of amino acids, perform structural, enzymatic, and regulatory roles. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) store and
transmit genetic information. These molecules are often polymers made by combining smaller subunits via dehydration synthesis.
CARBOHYDRATES

• Carbohydrates are widely known macromolecules essential for energy. While some people limit carbohydrate intake for
weight loss, athletes often increase it for performance energy. Found in grains, fruits, and vegetables, carbohydrates
provide glucose, a key energy source. It can be represented by the formula (CH2O) n, where n is the number of carbon
atoms in the molecule. In other words, the ratio of carbon to hydrogen to oxygen is 1:2:1 in carbohydrate molecules.
Carbohydrates are classified into three subtypes: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
o Monosaccharides (mono- = “one”; sacchar- = “sweet”) are simple sugars, the most common of which is glucose. In
monosaccharides, the number of carbon atoms usually ranges from three to six. Most monosaccharide names end
with the suffix -ose. Depending on the number of carbon atoms in the sugar, they may be known as trioses (three
carbon atoms), pentoses (five carbon atoms), and hexoses (six carbon atoms).
▪ Monosaccharides may exist as a linear chain or as ring-shaped molecules; in aqueous solutions, they are
usually found in the ring form.
▪ The chemical formula for glucose is C6H12O6. In most living species, glucose is an important source of
energy. During cellular respiration, energy is released from glucose, and that energy is used to help make
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Plants synthesize glucose using carbon dioxide and water by the process of
photosynthesis, and the glucose, in turn, is used for the energy requirements of the plant. The excess
synthesized glucose is often stored as starch that is broken down by other organisms that feed on plants.
▪ Galactose (part of lactose, or milk sugar) and fructose (found in fruit) are other common monosaccharides.
Although glucose, galactose, and fructose all have the same chemical formula (C6H12O6), they differ
structurally and chemically (and are known as isomers) because of differing arrangements of atoms in the
carbon chain.
o Disaccharides (di- = “two”) form when two monosaccharides undergo a dehydration reaction (a reaction in which the
removal of a water molecule occurs). During this process, the hydroxyl group (–OH) of one monosaccharide
combines with a hydrogen atom of another monosaccharide, releasing a molecule of water (H2O) and forming a
covalent bond between atoms in the two sugar molecules.
▪ Common disaccharides include lactose, maltose, and sucrose. Lactose is a disaccharide consisting of the
monomer’s glucose and galactose. It is found naturally in milk. Maltose, or malt sugar, is a disaccharide
formed from a dehydration reaction between two glucose molecules. The most common disaccharide is
sucrose, or table sugar, which is composed of the monomer’s glucose and fructose.
o Polysaccharide (poly- = “many”) is a long chain of monosaccharides linked by covalent bonds. The chain may be
branched or unbranched, and it may contain different types of monosaccharides. Polysaccharides may be very large
molecules. Starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin are examples of polysaccharides.
▪ Starch is the stored form of sugars in plants and is made up of amylose and amylopectin (both polymers of
glucose). Plants are able to synthesize glucose, and the excess glucose is stored as starch in different plant
parts, including roots and seeds. The starch that is consumed by animals is broken down into smaller
molecules, such as glucose. The cells can then absorb the glucose.
▪ Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in humans and other vertebrates, and is made up of monomers of
glucose. Glycogen is the animal equivalent of starch and is a highly branched molecule usually stored in
liver and muscle cells. Whenever glucose levels decrease, glycogen is broken down to release glucose.
▪ Cellulose is one of the most abundant natural biopolymers. The cell walls of plants are mostly made of
cellulose, which provides structural support to the cell. Wood and paper are mostly cellulosic in nature.
Cellulose is made up of glucose monomers that are linked by bonds between particular carbon atoms in the
glucose molecule.
• Carbohydrates serve other functions in different animals. Arthropods, such as insects, spiders, and crabs, have an outer
skeleton, called the exoskeleton, which protects their internal body parts. This exoskeleton is made of the biological
macromolecule chitin, which is a nitrogenous carbohydrate. It is made of repeating units of a modified sugar containing
nitrogen. Thus, through differences in molecular structure, carbohydrates are able to serve the very different functions of
energy storage (starch and glycogen) and structural support and protection (cellulose and chitin).
• Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic compounds, insoluble in water due to their nonpolar hydrocarbon structure.
They serve key roles, including long-term energy storage (as fats), insulation, and forming water-repellent barriers for
aquatic birds and mammals. Lipids are also essential for building hormones and the plasma membrane. Common lipid
types include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids.
o A fat molecule, such as a triglyceride, consists of two main components—glycerol and fatty acids. Glycerol is an
organic compound with three carbon atoms, five hydrogen atoms, and three hydroxyl (–OH) groups. Fatty acids
have a long chain of hydrocarbons to which an acidic carboxyl group is attached, hence the name “fatty acid.”
The number of carbons in the fatty acid may range from 4 to 36; most common are those containing 12–18
carbons. In a fat molecule, a fatty acid is attached to each of the three oxygen atoms in the –OH groups of the
glycerol molecule with a covalent bond.
o Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated. In a fatty acid chain, if there are only single bonds between
neighboring carbons in the hydrocarbon chain, the fatty acid is saturated. When the hydrocarbon chain
contains a double bond, the fatty acid is an unsaturated fatty acid. Most unsaturated fats are liquid at room
temperature and are called oils.

▪ Phospholipids are the major constituent of the plasma membrane. Like fats, they are composed of
fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol or similar backbone. Instead of three fatty acids attached,
however, there are two fatty acids and the third carbon of the glycerol backbone is bound to a
phosphate group. The phosphate group is modified by the addition of an alcohol.
 A phospholipid has both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions. The fatty acid chains are
hydrophobic and exclude themselves from water, whereas the phosphate is hydrophilic and
interacts with water.
 Cells are surrounded by a membrane, which has a bilayer of phospholipids. The fatty acids of
phospholipids face inside, away from water, whereas the phosphate group can face either the
outside environment or the inside of the cell, which are both aqueous.
▪ Steroids and Waxes
 Unlike the phospholipids and fats, steroids have a ring structure. Although they do not
resemble other lipids, they are grouped with them because they are also hydrophobic. All
steroids have four, linked carbon rings and several of them, like cholesterol, have a short tail.
Cholesterol is a steroid. Cholesterol is mainly synthesized in the liver and is the precursor of
many steroid hormones, such as testosterone and estradiol. It is also the precursor of vitamins
E and K. Cholesterol is the precursor of bile salts, which help in the breakdown of fats and their
subsequent absorption by cells. Although cholesterol is often spoken of in negative terms, it is
necessary for the proper functioning of the body. It is a key component of the plasma
membranes of animal cells.
 Waxes are made up of a hydrocarbon chain with an alcohol (–OH) group and a fatty acid.
Examples of animal waxes include beeswax and lanolin. Plants also have waxes, such as the
coating on their leaves, that helps prevent them from drying out.
• Proteins
o Proteins are among the most prevalent organic molecules in living organisms and exhibit the greatest variety of
functions compared to other macromolecules. They can serve various roles, such as structural, regulatory,
 contractile, or protective functions. Proteins may also be involved in transport, storage, membrane structure, or
even act as toxins or enzymes. Each cell within a living organism contains thousands of distinct proteins, each
performing a specific function. While their structures and functions are highly varied, all proteins are polymers
made up of amino acids arranged in a linear sequence.
o The diversity in protein functions stems from the fact that there are 20 chemically distinct amino acids that can
form long chains in any possible order. For instance, proteins can act as enzymes or hormones. Enzymes, which
are produced by living cells, are catalysts for biochemical reactions (such as digestion) and are typically proteins.
Each enzyme is specialized for a specific substrate, which is the reactant it acts upon. Enzymes can break
molecular bonds, rearrange them, or create new bonds. One example is salivary amylase, which breaks down
amylose, a component of starch.

▪ Hormones are chemical signaling molecules, usually proteins or steroids, secreted by an endocrine
gland or group of endocrine cells that act to control or regulate specific physiological processes,
including growth, development, metabolism, and reproduction. For example, insulin is a protein
hormone that maintains blood glucose levels.

▪ Proteins have different shapes and molecular weights; some proteins are globular in shape whereas
others are fibrous in nature. For example, hemoglobin is a globular protein, but collagen, found in our
skin, is a fibrous protein. Protein shape is critical to its function. Changes in temperature, pH, and
exposure to chemicals may lead to permanent changes in the shape of the protein, leading to a loss of
function or denaturation. All proteins are made up of different arrangements of the same 20 kinds of
amino acids.

o Amino acids are the monomers that make up proteins. Each amino acid has the same fundamental structure,
which consists of a central carbon atom bonded to an amino group (–NH2), a carboxyl group (–COOH), and a
hydrogen atom. Every amino acid also has another variable atom or group of atoms bonded to the central carbon
atom known as the R group. The R group is the only difference in structure between the 20 amino acids;
otherwise, the amino acids are identical.
▪ The sequence and number of amino acids ultimately determine a protein’s shape, size, and function.
Each amino acid is attached to another amino acid by a covalent bond, known as a peptide bond, which
is formed by a dehydration reaction. The carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of a
second amino acid combine, releasing a water molecule. The resulting bond is the peptide bond.
▪ The products formed by such a linkage are called polypeptides. While the terms polypeptide and
protein are sometimes used interchangeably, a polypeptide is technically a polymer of amino acids,
whereas the term protein is used for a polypeptide or polypeptides that have combined together, have a
distinct shape, and have a unique function.
o Protein Structure
▪ The four levels of protein structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.
▪ Each protein has its own unique sequence and shape held together by chemical interactions. If the
protein is subject to changes in temperature, pH, or exposure to chemicals, the protein structure may
change, losing its shape in what is known as denaturation.
▪ Denaturation is often reversible because the primary structure
is preserved if the denaturing agent is removed, allowing the
protein to resume its function. Sometimes denaturation is
irreversible, leading to a loss of function. One example of
protein denaturation can be seen when an egg is fried or
boiled. The albumin protein in the liquid egg white is denatured
when placed in a hot pan, changing from a clear substance to
an opaque white substance. Not all proteins are denatured at
high temperatures; for instance, bacteria that survive in hot
springs have proteins that are adapted to function at those
temperatures.
• Enzymes
o An enzyme is a biological catalyst and is almost always a protein. It speeds up the rate of a specific chemical
reaction in the cell. The enzyme is not destroyed during the reaction and is used over and over. A cell contains
thousands of different types of enzyme molecules, each specific to a particular chemical reaction. Enzymes are
commonly named by adding a suffix “-ase” to the root name of the substrate molecule they will naturally be
acting upon. For example, Lipase catalyzes the hydrolysis of lipids, they break down the molecule with the help
of water; Sucrase catalyzes the hydrolysis of sucrose into glucose and fructose.

▪ The “lock and key” model was first proposed in 1894. In this model, an enzyme’s active site is a
specific shape, and only the substrate will fit into it, like a lock and key.
▪ The induced-fit model, helps to account for reactions between substrates and active sites that are
not exact fits. In this model, the active site changes shape as it interacts with the substrate. Once the
substrate fully locks in and in the exact position, the catalysis can begin.
o Cofactors- Some enzymes cannot function unless they attach to a specific non-protein molecule, known as
cofactors. There are two types of cofactors, ions and coenzymes.
▪ Ions are inorganic molecules that loosely bond to the enzyme to ensure it can function. By contrast,
coenzymes are organic molecules that also loosely bond with and allow an enzyme to do its
job.nWhen a cofactor bonds tightly with an enzyme, it is known as a prosthetic group.
o Inhibition- To ensure that the body’s systems work correctly, it is sometimes necessary to slow down enzyme
function. For instance, if an enzyme makes too much of a product, then the body needs a way to reduce or
stop the production.
▪ Several factors can limit enzyme activity levels, including:
▪ Competitive inhibitors: This inhibitor molecule blocks the active site so that the substrate
has to compete with the inhibitor to attach to the enzyme.
▪ Non-competitive inhibitors: This molecule binds to an enzyme somewhere other than
the active site and reduces how effectively it works.
▪ Uncompetitive inhibitors: This inhibitor binds to the enzyme and substrate. The products
leave the active site less easily, which slows the reaction.
▪ Irreversible inhibitors: This is an irreversible inhibitor, which binds to an enzyme and
permanently inactivates it.
o Examples of specific enzymes
▪ Thousands of enzymes in the human body exist to perform around 5,000 different functions. A few
examples include:
▪ Lipases: This group of enzymes help digest fats in the gut.
 ▪ Amylase: In the saliva, amylase helps change starches into sugars.
▪ Maltase: This also occurs in the saliva, and breaks the sugar maltose into glucose.
▪ Trypsin: These enzymes break proteins down into amino acids in the small intestine.
▪ Lactase: Lactase breaks lactose, the sugar in milk, into glucose and galactose.
▪ Acetylcholinesterase: These enzymes break down the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in
nerves and muscles.
▪ Helicase: Helicase enzymes unravel DNA.
▪ DNA polymerase: These enzymes synthesize DNA from deoxyribonucleotides.
• Nucleic Acids
o Nucleic acids are key macromolecules in the continuity of life. They carry the genetic blueprint of a cell and carry
instructions for the functioning of the cell.
o The two main types of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). DNA is the
genetic material found in all living organisms, ranging from single-celled bacteria to multicellular mammals. The
other type of nucleic acid, RNA, is mostly involved in protein synthesis. The DNA molecules never leave the
nucleus, but instead use an RNA intermediary to communicate with the rest of the cell. Other types of RNA are
also involved in protein synthesis and its regulation.
o DNA and RNA are made up of monomers known as nucleotides. The nucleotides combine with each other to
form a polynucleotide, DNA or RNA. Each nucleotide is made up of three components: a nitrogenous base, a
pentose (five-carbon) sugar, and a phosphate group. Each nitrogenous base in a nucleotide is attached to a
sugar molecule, which is attached to a phosphate group.
o DNA Double-Helical Structure:
▪ DNA has a double-helical structure. It is composed
of two strands, or polymers, of nucleotides. The
strands are formed with bonds between phosphate
and sugar groups of adjacent nucleotides. The
strands are bonded to each other at their bases with
hydrogen bonds, and the strands coil about each
other along their length, hence the “double helix”
description, which means a double spiral.
▪ The alternating sugar and phosphate groups lie on
the outside of each strand, forming the backbone of
the DNA. The nitrogenous bases are stacked in the
interior, like the steps of a staircase, and these
bases pair; the pairs are bound to each other by
hydrogen bonds. The bases pair in such a way that
the distance between the backbones of the two
strands is the same all along the molecule. The rule
is that nucleotide A pairs with nucleotide T, and G
with C.
• SUMMARY
o Living organisms are carbon-based primarily because of carbon's unique ability to form stable covalent bonds
with many elements, including itself. This property allows carbon to create a wide variety of complex molecules
essential for life. The carbon atom has four covalent bonding positions, enabling it to form diverse structures
such as chains, rings, and branches. This versatility accounts for the vast range of carbon-containing compounds
that make up living organisms. These compounds perform a variety of crucial functions in biological systems,
from providing structural integrity to storing and transferring energy. Thus, carbon's central role in the chemistry
of life makes it the foundation for all living organisms.
o Carbohydrates are one of the key groups of macromolecules essential for life. These molecules consist of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and serve multiple vital functions within living organisms. Carbohydrates are an
important energy source, particularly for cells, where they can be broken down into simpler sugars that release
energy. In addition to energy storage, carbohydrates are crucial for providing structural support. For example, in
plants, cellulose (a polysaccharide) forms the cell wall, giving the plant its shape and rigidity. Carbohydrates also
play a role in cell recognition and signaling. They are found on the surface of cells, often attached to proteins or
lipids, where they act as receptors or markers for cellular communication. Carbohydrates are classified based on
the number of simple sugar units (monomers) they contain. Monosaccharides are the simplest form, such as
glucose or fructose, while disaccharides (e.g., sucrose) consist of two monosaccharides. Polysaccharides, such
as starch and glycogen, are long chains of monosaccharides and serve as energy reserves.
o Lipids are another important class of macromolecules that are nonpolar and hydrophobic, meaning they do not
dissolve in water. Lipids are primarily composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and are essential for storing
energy, forming cell membranes, and acting as signaling molecules. The main types of lipids include fats and
oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids. Fats and oils are primarily used for energy storage in organisms. Fats,
typically solid at room temperature, and oils, which are liquid, both consist of triglycerides, which are made by
combining three fatty acid molecules with one glycerol molecule. These stored fats are important energy
reserves that can be metabolized when needed. Phospholipids are a critical component of cellular membranes,
with hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails, allowing them to form the bilayer structure of cell membranes.
Steroids, like cholesterol, have a structure composed of four fused rings and play important roles in regulating
various cellular processes, such as hormone synthesis.
o Proteins are incredibly versatile macromolecules that are involved in almost every biological function. Proteins
are made up of amino acids, which are organic compounds containing an amino group and a carboxyl group.
The sequence and arrangement of amino acids determine the protein's structure and function. Proteins can
serve a variety of purposes, including acting as enzymes to speed up chemical reactions, as carriers to transport
molecules across cell membranes, and as hormones to regulate bodily processes. Proteins also provide
structural support, for example, collagen in connective tissue. The structure of a protein is organized into four
levels: the primary structure, which is the sequence of amino acids; the secondary structure, which refers to local
folding patterns like alpha helices or beta sheets; the tertiary structure, which is the three-dimensional shape of
the protein; and the quaternary structure, which is the arrangement of multiple protein subunits. The shape of a
protein is critical to its function, and even a small change in shape—due to factors like temperature, pH, or
chemical exposure—can cause denaturation, where the protein loses its structure and, consequently, its
function.
o Nucleic acids are another vital class of macromolecules composed of repeating units called nucleotides. These
molecules are responsible for storing and transmitting genetic information. Each nucleotide is made up of a
sugar molecule (either ribose in RNA or deoxyribose in DNA), a nitrogenous base (either adenine, thymine,
cytosine, guanine, or uracil), and a phosphate group. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) carries the genetic blueprint
for an organism, determining its traits and guiding cellular activities like cell division and protein synthesis. RNA
(ribonucleic acid) plays a crucial role in translating this genetic information into functional proteins. The structure
of nucleic acids is a double helix in DNA, while RNA is typically single-stranded. Nucleic acids are fundamental to
cellular life, driving processes such as gene expression, cell replication, and metabolic regulation.
o Together, these macromolecules—carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids—form the complex
biochemical foundation of life, enabling cells and organisms to carry out the processes necessary for survival,
growth, and reproduction.