Subject: LICA

TWO MARKS QUESTIONS

Unit-1
1.What is differential amplifier
Differential amplifier is a basic building block of an op-amp.
The function of a differential amplifier is to amplify the difference between two input
signals.
2. Draw the ideal voltage transfer curve of op amp.

3. Define an operational amplifier.

An operational amplifier is a direct-coupled, high gain amplifier consisting of one or more
differential amplifier. By properly selecting the external components, it can be used to perform a
variety of mathematical operations.
4. What are the ideal characteristics of op amp?

1. Open loop voltage gain is infinity.

2. Input impedance is infinity.
3. Output impedance is zero.
4. Bandwidth is infinity.
5. Zero offset.
5. What is the meaning of balanced and unbalanced output?
6.Define input offset voltage.
A small voltage applied to the input terminals to make the output voltage as zero when the two
input terminals are grounded is called input offset voltage.
7. Define input offset current. State the reasons for the offset currents at the input
of the op-amp.
The difference between the bias currents at the input terminals of the op-amp is called as input
offset current. The input terminals conduct a small value of dc current to bias the input
transistors. Since the input transistors cannot be made identical, there
exists a difference in bias currents.
8. Define CMRR of an op-amp.
The relative sensitivity of an op-amp to a difference signal as compared to a common –mode
signal is called the common –mode rejection ratio. It is expressed in decibels.CMRR= Ad/Ac
9. List the properties of practical OP-AMP.

10.What are the applications of current sources?

Transistor current sources are widely used in analog ICs both as biasing elements and as load
devices for amplifier stages.
11 What is a differential amplifier? What is the ideal value of its gain?
A differential amplifier is one which amplifies the difference between its two input signals. The
gain with which it amplifies the difference is called its differential gain and ideally it should be
infinite.
12. What is common mode gain of a differential amplifier?
If the two input signals to a differential amplifier are same, then its output should be zero. But
practically it produces a small output which is proportional to the average common level of the
two input signals. The factor by which the differential amplifier amplifies the common mode
signal is called its common mode gain.
13. What is CMRR? State its ideal value.
The ability of the differential amplifier to reject common mode signal is expressed by the ratio of
differential gain to the common
0which is called its common mode rejection ratio CMRR. The ideal value of CMRR is infinite.
14. List out various configurations of a differential amplifier.
 Dual input, balanced output.
 Dual input, unbalanced output.
  Single input, balanced output.
 Single input, unbalanced output.
15. Why practically RE cannot be selected very high?
Practically RE cannot be selected very high because:
 Large RE requires higher biasing voltages to set the proper operating point of the
transistor.
 This increases the overall chip area.
 Smaller number of components can be installed on the same chip which is undesirable
from integrated circuit point of view.
16. Why constant current source is used instead of RE?
Without physically increasing the value of RE , the RE replaced by a transistor operated at a
constant current. Such a constant current source circuit gives the effect of a very high resistance
as the internal resistance of a constant current is infinite. And due to transistorized circuit, it
needs smaller supply voltage; hence it does not affect the Q point of the basic circuit. Effect of
higher value of RE is provided by a constant current source due to which common mode gain
becomes very small and due to which CMRR becomes very high.
17. What is current mirror?
The circuit in which the output current is forced to equal the input current is called current
mirror.
18. List the advantages of current mirror.
 Provides very large emitter resistance RE.
 Requires lesser components than constant current bias. Simple to design.
 Easy to fabricate.
 With properly matched transistors, collector current thermal stability is achieved.
19. Why current mirror circuit is often used?
The constant current bias can be easily replaced by constant current mirror circuit to improve
CMRR. Due to these advantages, current mirror circuit is most commonly used in the integrated
circuit op-amps.
20. What is active load? Why it is used in the differential amplifier?
The current mirror circuit is used as a collector load resistance is called an active load. This
circuit provides high value of a.c. collector resistance which is required to achieve high
differential gain but it does not disturb d.c. conditions of the circuit. The quiescent voltage
required across the current mirror is a fraction of the supply stage. This eliminates the need for
high biasing supply voltages. Due to all these advantages, active load is used in the differential
amplifier circuit.
21. What is the classification of ICs based on complexity level?
Based on the complexity level (number of gates on a chip) ICs are classified as
 Small scale integration (SSI).
 Medium scale integration (MSI).
 Large scale integration (LSI).
 Very large scale integration (VLSI)

Unit-2
1. In practical op-amps, what is the effect of high frequency on its performance?
The open-loop gain of op-amp decreases at higher frequencies due to the presence of parasitic
capacitance. The closed-loop gain increases at higher frequencies and leads to instability.
2. What is the need for frequency compensation in practical op-amps?
Frequency compensation is needed when large bandwidth and lower closed loop gain is desired.
Compensating networks are used to control the phase shift and hence to improve the stability.
3. Mention the frequency compensation methods.
Dominant-pole compensation
Pole-zero compensation.
4. What are the merits and demerits of Dominant-pole compensation?
Noise immunity of the system is improved.
Open-loop bandwidth is reduced.
5. Define slew rate.
The slew rate is defined as the maximum rate of change of output voltage caused by a step input
voltage.An ideal slew rate is infinite which means that op-amp’s output voltage should change
instantaneously in response to input step voltage.
6. What causes slew rate?
There is a capacitor with-in or outside of an op-amp to prevent oscillation.It is this capacitor
which prevents the output voltage from responding immediately to a fast changing input.
7. Why IC 741 is not used for high frequency applications?
IC741 has a low slew rate because of the predominance of capacitance present in the circuit at
higher frequencies. As frequency increases the output gets distorted due to limited slew rate.
8. What are the methods to improve slew rate?
 The slew rate can be improved with a higher closed-loop gain and dc supply voltage. But
the slew rate also varies with temperature i.e. slow rate decreases with increase in
temperature.
 Another method for improving slew rate is, the rate at which voltage across the capacitor
increases is gained by dVc/dt = I / C where I is the maximum current furnished by the op-
amp to the capacitor C. from the equation it is clear that for a higher slew rate, op-amp
should have either a higher current or a small value of capacitor.
9. What are the AC characteristics of an op-amp?
• Frequency response. • Slew rate.
10. What are the DC characteristics of an op-amp? Give typical values for an IC741.
 Input bias current: 500nA.
 Input offset current: 200nA.
 Input offset voltage: 6mV
 Thermal drift.
11. What is a practical Op-amp? Draw its equivalent circuit.
A practical Op-amp has voltage gain to be less than that of ideal one. Its input impedance is very
high, bandwidth is very high ,offset voltage is near to zero , slew rate is very high, and output
impedance is near zero.
12.How is the gain stabilized by negative feedback?
Negative feedback is used mainly to stabilize the overall voltage gain. If the open loop voltage
gain AOL increases for any reason, the output voltage will increase and feeds back more voltage
to the inverting input. This opposing feedback voltage reduces inverting input voltage V(-).
Therefore even though AOL has increased, inverting input voltage V(-) has decreased and the
final output increases much less than that it would be without the negative feedback.
13.What is voltage follower?
Voltage follower is the circuit in which the output voltage follows the input voltage both in
magnitude as well as in phase.
14. What is an inverting amplifier?
Inverting amplifier is the one in which a signal is applied to the inverting input terminal. The
output voltage is fedback to the inverting input terminal through feedback resistance (Rf) - input
resistance (R I ) network. The output signal is the amplified form of input signal with a phase
shift of 180°
15.What is a non inverting amplifier?
Non inverting amplifier is the one in which a signal is applied to the non inverting input terminal
and the output is fedback to the inverting input terminal, the circuit amplifies without inverting
the input signal.
Unit 3
1.Mention some of the linear applications of op – amps.
Adder, subtractor, voltage –to- current converter, current –to voltage converters,instrumentation
amplifier, analog computation,power amplifier, etc are some of the linear op-amp circuits.
2.Mention some of the non – linear applications of op-amps.
Rectifier, peak detector, clipper, clamper, sample and hold circuit,log amplifier, anti –log
amplifier, multiplier are some of the non – linear op-amp circuits.
3.What are the areas of application of non-linear op- amp circuits?
 Industrial instrumentation
 Communication
 Signal processing
4. What is the need for an instrumentation amplifier?
In a number of industrial and consumer applications, the measurement of physical quantities is
usually done with the help of transducers. The output of transducer has to be amplified So that it
can drive the indicator or display system. This function is performed by an instrumentation
amplifier.
5.List the features of instrumentation amplifier.
 high gain accuracy
 high CMRR
 high gain stability with low temperature co-efficient
 low dc offset
 low output impedance
6.What are the applications of V-I converter?
 Low voltage dc and ac voltmeter
 LED
 Zener diode tester
7.What do you mean by a precision diode?
The major limitation of ordinary diode is that it cannot rectify voltages below the cut – in voltage
of the diode. A circuit designed by placing a diode in the feedback loop of an op – amp is called
the precision diode and it is capable of rectifying input signals of the order of millivolt.
8.Write down the applications of precision diode.
 Half - wave rectifier
 Full - Wave rectifier
 Peak – value detector
 Clipper
 Clamper
9.List the applications of Log amplifiers.
Analog computation may require functions such as lnx, log x, sin hx etc. These functions can be
performed by log amplifiers
 Log amplifier can perform direct dB display on digital voltmeter and spectrum analyzer
 Log amplifier can be used to compress the dynamic range of a Signal
10. What are the limitations of the basic differentiator circuit?
At high frequency, a differentiator may become unstable and break in to oscillations The input
impedance decreases with increase in frequency, thereby making the circuit sensitive to high
frequency noise.
11. Write down the condition for good differentiation.
For good differentiation, the time period of the input signal must be greater than or equal to R f
C1 T>R f C1Where, R f is the feedback resistance C f is the input capacitance
12.What is a filter?
Filter is a frequency selective circuit that passes signal of specified band of frequencies and
attenuates the signals of frequencies outside the band.
13.What are the demerits of passive filters?
Passive filters works well for high frequencies . But at audio frequencies, the inductors become
problematic, as they become large,heavy and expensive. For low f r equency appl i c a t ions ,
mor e numbe r of turns of wire must be used which in turn adds to the series resistance degrading
inductor’s performance ie, low Q,resulting in high power dissipation.
14.What are the advantages of active filters?
 Active filters used op- amp as the active element and resistors and capacitors as passive
elements.
 By enclosing a capacitor in the feedback loop , inductor less active filters can be obtained
 Op-amp used in non – inverting configuration offers high input impedance and low output
impedance, thus improving the load drive capacity.
15.Mention some commonly used active filters :
 Low pass filter
 High pass filter
 Band pass filter
 Band reject filter
16. Mention the main applications of differentiator.
The main applications of differentiator are :
 Used in wave shaping circuits to detect high frequency components in an input signal.
 Used as rate of change detector in FM modulations.
17. What is an integrator circuit? How is it obtained?
An Op-amp circuit that produces an output signal, which is an integral of input signal, is called
as integrator circuit. It is obtained by simply interchanging resistor and capacitor of differentiator
circuit.
18. List the drawbacks of ideal integrator.
The drawbacks of ideal integrator are :
 At low frequencies (dc), gain becomes infinity.
 When the op-amp saturates i.e. the capacitor is fully charged, ideal integrator behaves like an
open circuit.
19. Why is the practical integrator called as lossy integrator?
The gain of the integrator at lower frequencies can be limited to avoid the saturation
problem, if the feedback capacitor C f is shunted by a resistor R f .The parallel combination of R
f and C f behaves like practical capacitor, which dissipates power, unlike an ideal capacitor. For
this reason, the circuit is called as lossy integrator.
20 .List any four applications of practical Integrator.
The applications of practical integrator are as follows :
1.Analog computers
2.Analog to digital computers
3.Wave shaping circuits
4.In ramp generators

Unit-4
1. What is a multivibrator?
Multivibrators are a group of regenerative circuits that are used extensively in timing
applications. It is a wave shaping circuit which gives symmetric or asymmetric square output. It
has two states either stable or quasi- stable depending on the type of multivibrator.
2.What do you mean by monostable multivibrator?
Monostable multivibrator is one which gene r a t e s a s ingle pulse of specified duration in
response to each external trigger signal. It has only one stable state. Application of a trigger
causes a change to the quasi-stablestate. An external trigger signal generated due to charging and
discharging of the capacitor produces the transition to the original stable state.
3.What is an astable multivibrator?
Astable multivibrator is a free running oscillator having two quasistable states. Thus, there is
oscillations between these two states and no external signal are required to produce the change in
state.
4. What is a bistable multivibrator?
Bistable multivibrator is one that maintains a given output voltage level unless an external trigger
is applied . Application of an external trigger signal causes a change of state, and this output
level is maintained indefinitely until an second trigger is applied . Thus, it requires two external
triggers before it returns to its initial state.
5. What are the requirements for producing sustained oscillations in feed back circuits?
For sustained oscillations, The total phase shift around the loop must be zero at the
desired
frequency of oscillation , fo. i e , A B = 0 ( o r ) 3 6 0 °
At fo, the magnitude of the loop gain | A β | should be equal to unity
6.Mention any two audio frequency oscillators.
 RC phase shift oscillator
 Wein bridge oscillator
7. Mention some areas where PLL is widely used.
 Radar synchronization
 Satellite communication systems
 air borne navigational systems
 FM communication systems
 Computers.
8. List the basic building blocks of PLL
 Phase detector/comparator
 Low pass filter
 Error amplifier
 Voltage controlled oscillator
9. What are the three stages through which PLL operates?
 Free running
 Capture
 Locked/ tracking
10. Define lock-in range of a PLL.
The range of frequencies over which the PLL can maintain lock with the incoming signal is
called the lock-in range or tracking range. It is expressed as a percentage of the VCO free
running frequency.
11. Define capture range of PLL.
The range of frequencies over which the PLL can acquire lock with an input signal is called the
capture range. It is expressed as a percentage of the VCO free running frequency.
12. Define Pull-in time.
The total time taken by the PLL to establish lock is called pull-intime. It depends on the initial
phase and frequency difference between the two signals as well as on the overall loop gain and
loop filter characteristics.
13.For perfect lock, what should be the phase relation between the incoming signal and
VCO output signal?
The VCO output should be 90 degrees out of phase with respect to the input signal.
14.Give the classification of phase detector:
 Analog phase detector
 Digital phase detector
15.What is a switch type phase detector?
An electronic switch is opened and closed by signal coming from VCO and the input signal is
chopped at a repetition rate determined by the VCO frequency. This type of phase detector is
called a half wave detector since the phase information for only one-half of the input signal is
detected and averaged.
16. What are the problems associated with switch type phase detector?
The output voltage Ve is proportional to the input signal amplitude. This is undesirable because
it makes phase detector gain and loop gain dependent on the input signal amplitude. The output
is proportional to cos making it non linear.
17.What is a voltage controlled oscillator?
Voltage controlled oscillator is a free running multivibrator operating at a set frequency called
the free running frequency. This frequency can be shifted to either side by applying a dc control
voltage and the frequency deviation is proportional to the dc control voltage.
18.On what parameters does the free running frequency of VCO depend on?
 External timing resistor, R T
 External timing capacitor, CT
 The dc control voltage Vc.
19.Give the expression for the VCO free running frequency.
f o= 0.25 / R TCT
20.Define Voltage to Frequency conversion factor.
Voltage to Frequency conversion factor is defined as,
Ky = f o/ Vc=8f o/Vccw where , VC is the modulation voltage required to produce the frequency
shift fo
21. What is the purpose of having a low pass filter in PLL?
It removes the high frequency components and noise. Controls the dynamic characteristics of the
PLL such as capture range, lock -in range, band-width and transient response. The charge on the
filter capacitor gives a short- time memory to the PLL.
22. Discuss the effect of having large capture range.
The PLL cannot acquire a signal outside the capture range, but once captured, it will hold on till
the frequency goes beyond the lock-in range. Thus, to increase the ability of lock range, large
capture range is required. But, a large capture range will make the PLL more susceptible to noise
and undesirable signal.
23. Mention some typical applications of PLL:
 Frequency multiplication/division
 Frequency translation
 AM detection
 FM demodulation
 FSK demodulation.
24.Mention some applications of 555 timer:
 Oscillator
 pulse generator
 ramp and square wave generator
 mono-shot multivibrator
 burglar alarm
 Traffic light control
25. What is a comparator?
A comparator is a circuit which compares a signal voltage applied at one input of an op-amp
with a known reference voltage at the other input. It is an open loop op -amp with output +Vsat .
26. What are the applications of comparator?
 Zero crossing detector
 Window detector
 Time marker generator
 Phase detector
27. What is a Schmitt trigger?
Schmitt trigger is a regenerative comparator. It converts sinusoidal input into a square wave
output. The output of Schmitt trigger swings between upper and lower threshold voltages, which
are the reference voltages of the input waveform.
28.What are the characteristics of a comparator?
 Speed of operation
  Accuracy
 Compatibility of the output
29. List the applications of 555 timer in monostable mode of operation:
 Missing pulse detector
 Linear ramp generator
 Frequency divider
 Pulse width modulation.
30. List the applications of 555 timer in Astable mode of operation:
 FSK generator
 Pulse-position modulator
31. List the applications of 555 timer in monostable mode of operation:
 Missing pulse detector
 Linear ramp generator
 Frequency divider
 Pulse width modulation.
32. List the applications of 555 timer in Astable mode of operation:
 FSK generator
 Pulse-position modulator

Unit-5
1. List the broad classification of ADCs.
 Direct type ADC.
 Integrating type ADC.
2. List out the direct type ADCs.
a) Flash (comparator) type converter
b) Counter type converter
c) Tracking or servo converter
d) Successive approximation type converter
3.List out some integrating type converters.
 Charge balancing ADC
 Dual slope ADC
4. What is integrating type converter?
An ADC converter that perform conversion in an indirect manner by firstchanging the analog I/P
signal to a linear function of time or frequency and then to adigital code is known as integrating
type A/D converter.
5. Explain in brief the principle of operation of successive Approximation ADC.
The circuit of successive approximation ADC consists of a successive approximation register
(SAR), to find the required value of each bit by trial & error. With the arrival of START
command, SAR sets the MSB bit to 1. The O/P is converted into an analog signal & it is
compared with I/P signal. This O/P is low or high. This process continues until all bits are
checked.
6.What are the main advantages of integrating type ADCs?
 The integrating type of ADC’s do not need a sample/Hold circuit at the input.
 It is possible to transmit frequency even in noisy environment or in an isolated form.
7.Where are the successive approximation type ADC used?
The Successive approximation ADCs are used in applications such as data loggers &
instrumentation where conversion speed is important.
8.What is the main drawback of a dual-slop ADC?
The dual slope ADC has long conversion time. This is the main drawback of dual slope ADC.
9.State the advantages of dual slope ADC:
It provide s excellent noise rejection of ac signals whose periods are integral multiples of the
integration time T.
10.Define conversion time.
It is defined as the total time required to convert an analog signal into its digital output. It
depends on the conversion technique used & the propagation delay of circuit components. The
conversion time of a successive approximation type ADC is given by T(n+1) where T---clock
period Tc---conversion time n----no.of bits
11.Define resolution of a data converter.
The resolution of a converter is the smallest change in voltage which may be produced at the
output or input of the converter. Resolution (in volts)= VFS/2n-1=1 LSB increment. The
resolution of an ADC is defined as the smallest change in analog input for a one bit change at the
output.
12.Define accuracy of converter.
Absolute accuracy: It is the maximum deviation between the actual converter output & the ideal
converter output.
Relative accuracy: It is the maximum deviation after gain & offset errors have been removed.
The accuracy of a converter is also specified in form of LSB increments or % of full-scale
voltage.
13.What is settling time?
It represents the time it takes for the output to settle within a specified band±½LSB of its final
value following a code change at the input (usually a full scale change). It depends upon the
switching time of the logic circuitry due to internal parasitic capacitance & inductances. Settling
time ranges from 100ns. 10μ Depending on word length & type circuit used.
14.Explain in brief stability of a converter:
The performance of converter changes with temperature age & power supply variation. So all the
relevant parameters such as offset, gain, linearity error & monotonicity must be specified over
the full temperature & power supply ranges to have better stability performances.
15.What is meant by linearity?
The linearity of an ADC/DAC is an important measure of its accuracy & tells us how close the
converter output is to its ideal transfer characteristics. The linearity error is usually expressed as
a fraction of LSB increment or percentage of full-scale voltage. A good converter exhibits a
linearity error of less than±½LSB.
16.What is monotonic DAC?
A monotonic DAC is one whose analog output increases for an increase in digital input.
17.What is multiplying DAC?
A digital to analog converter which uses a varying reference voltage VR is called a multiplying
DAC(MDAC). If the reference voltage of a DAC, VR is a sine wave give by V(t)=Vin Cos 2f t
Then, Vo(t)=Vo m Cos(2 ft + 180º)
18.What is a sample and hold circuit? Where it is used?
A sample and hold circuit is one which samples an input signal and holds onto its last sampled
value until the input is sampled again. This circuit is mainly used in digital interfacing, analog to
digital systems, and pulse code modulation systems.
19.Define sample period and hold period.
The time during which the voltage across the capacitor in sample and hold circuit is equal to the
input voltage is called sample period. The time period during which the voltage across the
capacitor is held constant is called hold period.
20. Give some applications of sample and hold circuit.
 Digital interfacing.
 Analog to digital converter circuits.
 Pulse modulation systems.
  In reset-stabilized op-amps.
 In analog demultiplexers.
21. Write the important specifications of digital to analog converter (DAC) and analog to
digital converter (ADC).
 Resolution.
 Linearity.
 Accuracy.
 Monotonic.
 Settling time.
 Stability.
22. What is single slope ADC?
The single slope ADC is also known as integrating ADC. Instead of using a DAC with a ramped
output, we use an op-amp circuit called an integrator to generate a saw tooth waveform, which is
then compared against the analog input by a comparator. time it takes for the saw tooth
waveform to exceed the input signal voltage level is measured by means of a digital counter
closed with a precise-frequency square wave
23. List the advantages of flash type A/D converter.
 It has high speed, as the conversion takes place simultaneously rather than sequentially.
 Typical conversion time is less.
 Conversion time is limited only by the speed of the comparator and of the priority encoder.
24. List the source of errors in ADC.
 Linearity error.
 Gain error.
 Offset error