THE CRADLE HIGH SCHOOL BENIN

LESSON NOTE FOR ESTHER TERM 2024/2025 ACADEMIC SESSION

PHYSICS YEAR 10
SCHEME OF WORK

1 Conservation principles 1. Explanation

Nigeria/Cambridge 2. The conservation of energy
3. Law of conservation of energy
3. Examples of energy transfer

2 Work, energy and 1. Concept of work as a measure of energy transfer

power,
Nigeria/Cambridge 2. Concept of energy as the capability to do work
3. Work done in a force field.
-Interchangeability of work and energy
- Determination of work, energy and power
4. Types of mechanical energy
-Potential energy (P.E.)
-Kinetic energy (K.E)
5. Conservation of mechanical energy.
6. Concept of power as the time rate of doing work.
.

3 Heat energy 1. Concept of temperature

Nigeria/Cambridge Temperature and its measurement
2. Effects of heat on matter
-Rise in temperature
-Change of phase state
-Expansion
2. Change of resistance
 -Concept of heat and temperature
2. Effects of heat
3. Temperature expansion
4. Sources and uses of heat
5. temperature scale
6. Thermometer
- Types
-Thermometric substances
- Why water is not used as a thermometric substance
- Evaporation and boiling
-Simple calculations

4 Expansivity Thermal expansion

Nigeria/Cambridge 1. Kinetic energy explanation of expansion
2. Expansion of solids
-Effects and application
- Advantages and disadvantages of thermal expansion of
solids
3. Linear expansivity- mathematical representation
4. Expansion in solid
-Area expansivity
- Volume expansivity
5. Expansion in liquid
- Real and apparent
-Anomalous expansion of water

5 Heat transfer 1. Definition

Nigeria/Cambridge 2. Conduction
- Practical conduction of heat
-Application
3. Convection
Convection currents
4. Radiation
- radiant energy
 - Infrared
5. How to detect radiation
- Radiometer
- Thermo pile
- Leslie cube
6. Applications of radiation
- Land and sea breeze
- Thermo flask

6 Electric charges 1. Electric charges

Nigeria/Cambridge 2. Types of charges
3. Production of electric charges
4. Distribution of charges
5. Storage of charges
6. Gold leaf electroscope
7. Uses of gold leaf electroscope
8. Lightning and lightning conductors

7 Mid-term assessment

8 Description and 1. Description property of fields.

properties of fields
2. Concept of fields: Gravitational, electric and Magnetic
Nigeria/Cambridge
3. Properties of a force field
4. Electric lines of force
-Properties of line of force
- Electric field pattern

9-10 Current electricity 1. Production of electric current from primary and

secondary cells
Production of
continuous electric 2. Current and quantity of charge
current
3. Potential difference(p.d) and electric current
Nigeria/Cambridge
4. Production of electric current from mechanical,
chemical, heat and solar energy
5. Ohms law
6. electric circuit
7, conductors and insulators
 8.calculate the electric work done in a given circuit

WEEK- 1
CLASS- Year 10
TOPIC-Conservation principles
LEARNING OBJECTIVES-
1. Explanation conservation of energy
2. State the law of conservation of energy
3. Give examples of energy transfer

THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

Conservation of Energy

The conservation of energy is an important principle in Physics. According to this principle, we can‟t „lose‟
or „gain‟ energy:

Energy can be transferred usefully, stored or dissipated, but cannot be created or destroyed.

Since we know that energy cannot be created or destroyed, all the energy from a system must be dissipated
somehow. The dissipated energy can be useful, or not useful (e.g. wasted energy).

In many energy transfers, thermal energy is a waste product. For example, when we switch on a light bulb,
chemical energy is being transferred to light energy, but some of the energy will be „wasted‟ as thermal
energy.

Energy Transfers in a Closed System

 Closed systems don’t exchange with their surroundings. Previously, we mentioned that closed
systems are unable to exchange energy or matter with their surroundings. For example, a thermos
flask is a closed system as heat cannot escape (ignoring negligible amounts of heat loss).
 Energy transfers can occur in closed systems. Like any other system, energy can be transferred in
a close system. However, since energy cannot exchange with the surroundings, there will be no net
change to the total energy in a closed system.
 Adding ice cubes to a water bottle is an energy transfer. If you put ice cubes into a full water
bottle and close the lid, you are transferring energy. We are assuming that the water bottle doesn‟t
allow any energy exchange with the surroundings, creating a closed system. The water will exchange
thermal energy with the ice cubes, so the water will cool down.
WEEK- 2
CLASS- Year 10
TOPIC-Work Energy and Power
LEARNING OBJECTIVE-
1. Explain the concept of work as a measure of energy transfer
2. Explain the concept of energy as the capability to do work
3. Determine work done in a force field.
-Interchangeability of work and energy
- Determination of work, energy and power
4. List the types of mechanical energy
-Potential energy (P.E.)
-Kinetic energy (K.E)
5. State conservation of mechanical energy.
6. Explain the concept of power as the time rate of doing work.

WORK
Work is said to be done whenever a force moves its point of application a distance in the direction of the
force. Work done is the product of force and distance measured in Joules
WD = f×d
WD = mgh for workdone through a vertical distance

WD= f × d this is for inclined force

ENERGY
Energy is the ability to do work or capacity to get things done. We have different forms of energy. However
our emphasis is on mechanical energy, it is divided into two
1. Potential energy- this is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position. We have elastic,
gravitational, elastic, chemical potential energy.
Energy gravitational is given by
P.E=mgh.
Let‟s take an example of an apple on a tree at a height of (H) from the ground
  The gravitational force is pulling the apple down.
 The apple in the image possesses only potential energy. It has no kinetic energy as it is at rest.
 The energy of this apple is due to its position above the ground, so this energy is known as
gravitational potential energy.

2. Kinetic energy- kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion.eg a moving
car, a fruit falling down a tree, a tennis ball etc.
K.E= 1/2mv2
CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY

The objects in the images possess potential energy because of their special shape and position.
When the special shape and position of the objects are disturbed, the objects come into motion. The energy
possessed by the objects in motion is kinetic energy. In all these examples transfer of energy is taking place
the potential energy is getting converted into the kinetic energy of the object.

Expression for total mechanical energy

When an apple falls freely from a tree during its entire path the total mechanical energy of the apple remains
conserved only the transformation of energy is taking place.

Mechanical energy is the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy of the body.

M.E = K.E + P. E

I.e., Mechanical energy = potential energy + kinetic energy

M.E = mgh + ½ mv2

Example of the law of conservation of energy

: A roller coaster ride.

At the top of the roller coaster, the rider has lots of potential energy because the cart is at a larger height
above the ground. When the car starts to fall, it starts gaining kinetic energy. During the ride, the rider keeps
losing and gaining height. Gaining height will create potential energy while losing height will create kinetic
energy.
Question 1:

On a roller coaster, a rider has a 1250 J of kinetic energy at an instant, and his mechanical energy is 3000 J.
(Take g as 10 m/sec2)

1. Find the potential energy of the rider.

2. If the rider has a mass of 25kg, what is his height above the ground at that instant?
3. What is the speed of the rider at that instant?

Solution:

The mass of the rider = m = 25 kg

The kinetic energy of the rider at an instant = K.E. = 1250 J

The total mechanical energy of the rider = M.E. = 3000 J

We know from the law of conservation of energy

Total mechanical energy = Potential energy + Kinetic energy

M.E. = P.E. + K.E.

5000 J = P.E. + 1250 J

Potential energy = 1750 J

P.E. = mgh

1750 = 25 x 10 x h, Height = h = 7 m

The height of the rider above the ground = 7m

K.E. = 1/2 mv2 = 1250 = 1/2 x 25 x v2

v = 10 m/sec

The speed of the rider at that instant = 10 m/sec

Question 2:

A ball of mass 200gm thrown vertically up from the ground reaches a maximum height of 20m in 10s. Find
the potential energy of the ball. (Take g as 10 m/sec2)

1. 40000 J
2. 20 J
3. 20000 J
4. 40 J

Solution:

Potential energy = P.E. = mgh

Mass = 200 gm
Height = h = 20m

P.E. = (200/1000)kg x 10 m/sec2 x 20m

P.E. = 40 J

Thus, the potential energy of the ball = 40 J

Question 3:

An apple of mass 25gm is falling from a tree, find the kinetic energy of the apple when it is about to reach
the ground from a height of 50m. (Take g as 10 m/sec2)

1. 12.5 J
2. 1.25 J
3. 1250 J
4. 250 J

Solution:

Mass of the apple= m = 25gm

Height = h = 50m

In this problem total mechanical energy = Constant

P.E. of the apple on the tree = K.E. of the apple when it is about to reach the ground

K.E. = P.E. = mgh

K.E. = (25/1000)x (10 m/sec2) x 50m

K.E. = 12.5 J

Thus, the kinetic energy of the apple when it is just about to reach the ground is 12.5 J.

POWER
Power is the rate of doing work. If kayla can do a job faster than kathrine we say that kayla has more power
P=f×d/t
P=mgh/t

P=fd
WEEK- 3
TOPIC – Heat
CLASS – Year 10
LEARNING OBJECTIVE-
1. Explain the concept of heat
2. Deduce the effects of heat on matter
-Rise in temperature
-Change of phase state
-Expansion
. Change of resistance
3. Explain the concept of heat and temperature
4. Determine temperature scale
5. Explain thermometer as instrument for measuring temperature
- List the types
-List thermometric substances
- State why water is not used as a thermometric substance
- Differentiate between evaporation and boiling

HEAT

Heat is not a matter and does not occupy any space. Like light, sound and electricity, it has no weight, and it
is a form of energy. Simply, heat is the kinetic energy of the particles inside the object. It is a measure of the
total internal energy of a body.
Heat can be represented through the SI unit “Joule”. It is also measured as “Calorie”.
How heat energy being transferred between the substances?

 All the substances in our surroundings are made up of atoms and molecules.
 These atoms and molecules are always in vibratory motion.
 Due to vibratory motion, substances have energy known as heat energy.
 This energy flows from the hot region to the cold region or hot to cold substances.
 Whenever a substance gets heat energy, the atoms and molecules inside the substance start to vibrate.
 These vibrated atoms and molecules tend to colloid with other atoms and molecules, resulting in heat
energy transfer

Effects of Heat energy:

Whenever the heat energy is supplied to any substance, it increases its temperature and also brings more
changes.

The following are the three important effects of heat that we can see in our daily life,
  Thermal expansion in objects

 Increase in temperature of the object

 Change in state of the substance

Others are;
 Change in pressure
 Thermionic emission
 Chemical change
 Change in physical properties of a body

TEMPERATURE
Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. It is what tells which way heat will flow. It is
measured with a thermometer.
HEAT AND TEMPERATURE COMPARED
Heat is a form of Energy that is transferred from one point to another due to change in temperature.
It is a form of energy that flow from a point of higher temperature to a point of lower temperature. It
can also be defined as a measure of the total internal energy of a body. Heat is a vector quantity. It is
measured in Joules, we measure heat using a calorimeter

While temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. It is a measure of the average kinetic
energy of the molecules that make up the body. It is a scalar quantity. It is measured in degree Celsius
(°C) or kelvin (K), we measure heat using thermometer.

MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE:
The instrument that is used to measure temperature is called thermometer. The thermometers used
any physical property of substance which varies with temperature and is easily measurable as means
measuring temperature.
Thermometric Substances:
Thermometric s are substances whose physical properties are used in the construction of
thermometers..

Type of thermometer:
1. Liquid in glass
thermometric substance: Mercury or Alcohol.
Physical property: Change in volume of liquid with temperature.
2. Gas thermometer
thermometric substance: Gas.
Physical property: Gas pressure changes with temperature.
3. Resistance thermometer
Thermometric Substance: Resistance wire
Physical Property: Electrical resistance change with temperature.
4. Thermocouple
Thermometric Substance: Two dissimilar wires
Physical Property: Change in electric potential difference between two metal junctions at different
temperatures.
5. Bimetallic thermometer
Thermometric Substance: Two dissimilar metals
Physical Property: Different expansion off the metals.

Temperature Scale of a Thermometer:

A thermometer has two reference temperatures or fixed points. They are the Upper Fixed Point and the
Lower Fixed Point.

The Upper Fixed Point:

Upper fixed point is the temperature of steam from pure water boiling at standard atmospheric pressure of
760 mm of mercury (760mmHg).

The Lower Fixed Point:

The lower fixed point is the temperature of pure melting ice block at standard atmospheric pressure of
760mm of mercury, (760mmHg ).

Fundamental Interval:
Fundamental interval is the difference between the upper fixed point and the lower fixed point of a
thermometer. The calibration of the fundamental interval of a thermometer depends on the temperature scale
chosen.

Formula for Calculating Fundamental Interval:

Fundamental Interval = upper fixed point – lower fixed point. Therefore,
Fundamental interval of degree Celsius = 100° - 0° = 100°C
Fundamental interval of Kelvin scale = 212 – 32 = 180K
Fundamental interval of Fahrenheit scale = 373 – 273 = 100°F

Types of Temperature Scales:

In temperature measurement, three types of scales are currently used in measuring temperature. They are:
1. The Celsius scale
II. The Fahrenheit scale
III. The Absolute or thermodynamic or kelvin scale

Diagram of Temperature Scale:

The figure shows the three different temperature scales, in °C, °F and K, that are used in measuring
temperature.
Conversion Of Temperature From One Scale To Another:
Conversion of temperature from degree Celsius (°C) to degree Fahrenheit ( °F ):
AB/AC = DE/DF
(X – 0)/(100 – 0) = (Y – 32)/(212 – 32)
X/100 = (Y – 32)/180
(X/100)*180 = Y – 32
1.8*X = Y – 32

Note:
Where X is Temperature in degree Celsius while Y is temperature in degree Fahrenheit. Examples
1. Change 25°C to temperature in Fahrenheit.

Solution: Data given in the question:

Temperature in °C (X) = 25°C. Y = ?
Formula: 1.8*X = Y – 32
Substitution: 1.8*25 = Y – 32
Make Y the subject: 1.8*25+32 = Y. ➡ Y = 45 + 32. ➡ Y = 77°F

2. Convert 120°F to degree Celsius.

Solution:
Data given in the question:
Temperature in °F, Y = 120°F
Formula: 1.8*X = Y – 32
Substitution: 1.8*X = 120 – 32. ➡ 1.8*X = 88
Make X the subject: X = 88 ÷ 1.8. ➡ X = 48.89°C

Conversion of temperature from degree Celsius (°C) to Kelvin (K):

Note: X is temperature in degree Celsius while Z is temperature in Kelvin.

AB/AC = GH/GI ➡ (X – 0)/(100 – 0) = (Z – 273)/(373 – 273)
. X/100 = (Z – 273) / 100
100 cancels 100: X = Z – 273 or Z = X + 273
Where X is temperature in degree Celsius (°C) while Z is temperature in Kelvin (K)
Worked examples:
1. Calculate the value of 200°C in Kelvin.

Solution:
Data given in the question:
Temperature in °C, X = 200°C.
Formula: X = Z – 273
Substitution: 200 = Z – 273
Make Z the subject: 200 + 273 = Z ➡ Z = 473 Kelvin

2. Given that the temperature of a body is 527kelvin, determine this value in degree Celsius.

Solution:
Data given in the quest:
Temperature in Kelvin, Z = 527K.
Formula: X = Z – 273
Substitution: X = 527 – 273. ➡ X = 254°C

Conversion of temperature from degree Fahrenheit (°F) to Kelvin (K):

Also, from the figure far above, I will explain how to convert temperature from degree Fahrenheit to
temperature in Kelvin. This is illustrated in formula 3.
From the figure,
DE/DF = GH/HI
(Y – 32)/(212 – 32) = (Z – 273)/(373 – 273)
. (Y – 32)/180 = (Z – 273)/100
. Y – 32 = 180*(Z – 273)/100
. Y – 32 = 1.8*(Z – 273)

Worked Examples:
1. It was recorded that the temperature of a body was 320°F. Determine the value of this temperature in
Kelvin.

Solution:
Data given in question:
Temperature in Fahrenheit, Y = 320°F
Formula: DE/DF = GH/GI
(Y – 32)/(212 – 32) = (Z – 273)/(373 – 273)
Substitution:
(320 – 32)/180 = (Z – 273)/100
. 288/180 = (Z – 273)/100
Make Z the subject: 288÷180*100 = Z – 273
28800 ÷ 180 = Z – 273
. 160 = Z – 273
160 + 273 = Z. ➡ Z = 433K

2. Convert 385K to temperature in degree Fahrenheit.

Solution:
Data given in the question:
Temperature in kelvin, Z = 385K
Formula: DE/DF = GH/GI
(Y – 32)/(212 – 32) = (385 – 273)/(373 – 273)
Substitution:
(Y – 32)/180 = 112/100
. (Y – 32)/180 = 1.12
Y – 32 = 1.12*180
. Y – 32 = 201.6
Y = 201.6 + 32. ➡ Y = 233.6°F
Relationship Between Temperature in Degree Celsius and Kelvin:
The difference between temperature in degree Celsius and Kelvin is the formula that connect the two scales.
The formula is as stated below.
Temperature in Kelvin T = temperature in degree Celsius Ө + 273
That is,
T = (Ө + 273 )K

Application Of Formula:
Worked Examples:
1. What is the value of 35°C in Kelvin?

Solution:
Data given in the question:
Temperature in degree Celsius = 35°C

Formula: temperature in Kelvin = Ө + 273

Substitution: T n Kelvin = 35 + 273. ➡ T in kelvin = 308 Kelvin

2. Change 356K to temperature in degree Celsius

Solution:
Data given in the question:
Temperature in Kelvin = 356K
Formula: Temperature in Kelvin = Ө + 273
Substitution: 356 = Ө + 273
Make Ө the subject: Ө = 356 – 273 ➡Ө = 83°C

3. Convert – 120°C to temperature in Fahrenheit.

Solution:
Data given in the question:
Temperature in degree Celsius = -120°C
Formula: Temperature in Kelvin = Ө + 273
Substitution: T in Kelvin = - 120 + 273. ➡ T = 153 Kelvin

Determination Of Upper and Lower Fixed Points Of a Thermometer:

Determination of upper fixed point:

Aim:
To determine the upper fixed point of a thermometer.
Apparatus:
Double wall steam jacket, manometer, thermometer, heat source, water.

Setup Diagram:
The set up diagram is as shown by the figure.

Procedure:
Use a cork and suspend the thermometer in the steam jacket such that its bulb is above the water surface.
Attach a manometer to the steam jacket and use it to balance the pressure inside the steam jacket with
atmospheric pressure by balancing the mercury levels in both arm of he u-tube ,( I.e 760 mmHg).
Attach a steam outlet to the hypsometer to ensure that no steam condenses on the thermometer. Heat the
water to boiling.
After some times, when the mercury thread is steady, mark the mercury level.

Observation:
The mercury thread rises to a steady level.

Conclusion:
The marked level of the mercury thread is the upper fixed point of the thermometer.

Precautions:
I. make sure that the thermometer bulb does not touch the water.
II. Mark the mercury level when the mercury thread is steady.
III. Make sure the pressure inside the hypsometer is balanced with the atmospheric pressure.
IV. Make sure a steam outlet is attached to the hypsometer so that no steam condenses on the thermometer.

Determination Of Lower Fixed Point:

Aim:
To determine the lower fixed point of a thermometer.

Apparatus:
Thermometer to be calibrated, ice block, funnel and conical flask.
Setup Diagram:

Procedures:
Insert the thermometer vertically into ice locks contained in a funnel such that it is visible enough. After
some times that the mercury level is steady, marks the mercury level.

Observation:
The mercury level falls gradually to a steady level.

Conclusion:
The marked mercury level is the lower fixed point of the thermometer.

Precautions:
I. Insert the thermometer such that the mercury thread is visible.
II. Mark the level when the mercury thread is steady.

Types Of Thermometers:
I. Liquid – in – glass thermometer:
these are thermometers whose thermometric substances are liquids
Types Of Liquid –in-glass thermometer:
1. Mercury – in – glass thermometer:
In mercury in glass thermometer, mercury is used as the thermometric substance.
2. Alcohol – in – glass thermometer:
In alcohol – in – glass thermometer, alcohol is used as the thermometric substance in making the
thermometer.

How to increase The Sensitivity Of Liquid – in – glass thermometer:

I. Use thin bulb:
Thin bulb enable the liquid inside the bulb to detect any small change in temperature.
II. Use narrow capillary tube:
Narrow capillary enable small temperature to produce large increase in mercury thread or length.
III. Use liquid of high expansivity:
The liquid should expand great for any Small change in temperature.

Properties of Thermometric liquid:

Liquids that are used as thermometric substances should have the following properties:
I. The liquid should expand and contract uniformly with temperature
II. The liquid should have high boiling point
III. The liquid should have low melting point
IV. The liquid should be opaque and easily seen

Reasons Water Is not Use As Thermometric Substance:

Water is not used as thermometric substance because of e following:
I. Water has small range of expansion.
II. Water freezes at 0°
III. Water boils at 100°
IV. Water does not expand uniformly ( of contract from 0°C to 4°C )
V. Water wet glass
VI. Water is colourless and make it difficult to read its meniscus.

Comparison of Mercury and Alcohol as Thermometric Substances:

I. Mercury has greater conductivity than alcohol. It expands rapidly. It indicate temperature chance quickly.
Alcohol has poor conductivity. It expands slowly. It respond to temperature change slowly.
II. Mercury is opaque. It is easily seen.
Alcohol need to be coloured before it can be easily seen.
III. Mercury has convex meniscus and does not wet glass.
Alcohol has concave meniscus, clinch to the wall of the glass and wet the glass.
IV. Mercury does not vaporize easily.
Alcohol vaporize easily even at low temperature.
V. Mercury can be used to measure higher temperature. It boils at 357°C.
Alcohol cannot be used to measure higher temperature. It boils at 78°C.

Advantages Of Alcohol Over Mercury As A Thermometric Liquid:

I. Alcohol freezes at – 115°C while mercury freezes at -39°C
II. Alcohol can be used to measure very low temperature while mercury can not.
III. The expansivity of alcohol is about six times that of mercury for the same temperature rise.

II. Clinical Thermometer:

Clinical thermometer is a mercury in glass thermometer that is used in hospital to measure human body
temperature. The temperature of a healthy normal human being is 37°C. The temperature may rise to 41°C
when the person has high fever.
The temperature range of a clinical thermometer is between 35°C to 43°C.

Diagram:
Important Features Of Clinical Thermometer:
Clinical thermometer bore has a bend called kink or constriction. The constriction allow expanded mercury
thread to flow and prevent the reflux of the mercury thread until the thermometer reading is taken. After the
reading is taken, the thermometer is vigorously shaken to return the mercury into the bulb.

Sterilization Of Clinical Thermometer:

Clinical thermometer is not sterilized in boiling water at normal pressure because the thermometer has a
small temperature range which does not extend to 100°C. At 100°C, the glass of the thermometer is forced
to expand excessively, the glass will brake.

Maximum and Minimum Thermometer:

Maximum and minimum thermometer is a liquid in glass thermometer. It is used to measure and record the
maximum and minimum temperature of the day. It is used by whether men in meteorological stations. The
most common maximum and minimum thermometer is the six‟s combined maximum and minimum
thermometer which was invented by James Six.

Construction Of Maximum And Minimum Thermometer:

Maximum and minimum thermometer is a U – shape stem that is connected to two bulbs X and Z. The two
bulbs contain alcohol which are separated by a column of mercury in the u – bend. Bulb P is completely
filled with alcohol while bulb Q is partly filled so that some air space are provided at the top of the bulb.
Two indexes float in the alcohol in both sides of the tube. Temperature scales are provided by the sides of
the tube.
2. Constant volume gas thermometer (not drawn to scale)

The above set-up is quite fragile, and contains a lot of mercury. It is therefore usually attached securely to a
stable support. The right-hand side can be raised or lowered to keep the mercury in the left side at the
constant reference level R, thus ensuring that the volume of the gas is constant each time a value of height
difference h is recorded.

The pressure of the gas = H + h.

In the position shown, h is positive. It is negative if the Hg in the right side is below R.
The mass of the gas is constant, since none can escape.

Here pressure, P, can be used as a thermometric quantity.

In the defining equation: X è P

Example

In an experiment to measure room temperature with the above set up:

3. Thermocouple thermometer

If two different metals form a circuit, as represented below, with their junctions at different temperatures,
then a current flows.
The pair of metals form a thermocouple, and the current is called a thermoelectric current. The current is
produced by an induced electromotive force (emf voltage). The phenomenon is called the Seebeck effect.

In practical thermocouple thermometers, the cold junction is usually kept at a constant temperature, and the
hot junction is used to determine an unknown temperature. The junction can be very small, so is has a small
heat capacity, and so has little effect on the temperature being measured. Also, a thermocouple thermometer
can respond rapidly to a changing temperature.

2. Platinum resistance thermometer

The electrical resistance, R, of a piece of wire varies with temperature, and so R can be used as a
thermometric property.

In the defining equation: X è R

Example

A piece of platinum wire has resistance 2.8 ohms at the steam-point and 2.4 ohms at 500C. What is its
resistance at the ice-point?
WEEK- 4
TOPIC – Expansivity
CLASS – Year 10
LEARNING OBJECTIVE-
1. Deduce the kinetic energy explanation of expansion
2. Explain:
I. Expansion of solids
II. Effects and application
III. Advantages and disadvantages of thermal expansion of solids
3. Derive the expression for linear expansivity- mathematical representation
4. Expansion in solid
-Area expansivity
- Volume expansivity
5. Expansion in liquid
- Real and apparent

-Anomalous expansion of water

KINETIC ENERGY AND EXPANSION

Temperature is the average kinetic (or movement) energy of the molecules in a substance.

 A higher temperature means that the molecules are moving faster on average.
 When a material is heated, the molecules inside that material start moving faster and, as a result, they
take up more space.
 They tend to move into areas that were previously empty. This increases the size of the object

Materials with high linear coefficients are very stable and are used in the construction of massive structures.

 A thermometer is made on the basis of the Thermal Expansion of mercury.

 The property of Thermal expansion is utilized in fitting an iron rim around a wooden wheel.
 Riveting is another example where the two steel plates are held tightly together by putting a hot rivet
between the plates and when the rivet cools it brings the plates very close together.
 Thermostat is a heat regulating device that works on the principle of Thermal expansion.

Thermal Expansion

Thermal expansion tends to increase the dimensions of the object in length, area, or volume. The expansion
caused in any substance (solid, liquid, or gaseous) by virtue of the increase in its temperature is termed
thermal expansion.
A common example is when we put a tightly closed lid of a bottle into hot water. The hot water changes the
temperature of the metallic lid which causes it to expand a bit, and hence the lid opens up easily without
much effort. Solids expand in a linear manner, in an areal manner, and in a volumetric manner. Liquids and
gases undergo only volumetric expansion.

APPLICATIONS OF EXPANSION

1. Sagging of telegraph wires

2. Expansion in steel bridges
3. Cooking utensils
4. Bimetallic stripes and their applications
5. Corrugated sheets

Thermal expansion is divided into three types –

 Linear expansion
 Area expansion
 Volume expansion

The different thermal expansion formula for linear expansion, area expansion, and volume expansion are as
given below.

Linear Expansion Formula

Objects which have negligible breadth as compared to their length undergo linear expansion, e.g metallic
rods, wires, etc. When their temperature increases it undergoes an increase in its breadth as well as length
but the increase in breadth is negligible to the increase in length and hence overall the expansion occurs
linearly. Linear expansion is the change in the length of an object due to heat.

Relative linear expansion formula

The formula of the coefficient of linear thermal expansion can be derived as follows:-
Area Expansion Formula

Objects that have negligible height as compared to length and breadth, i.e, a sheet-like appearance undergo
an expansion in the area. The area increases with an increase in temperature. This is known as
Area expansion. The formula for the coefficient of area thermal expansion can be derived as follows-

Volume Expansion Formula

Objects that undergo an increase in size three-dimensionally when their temperature is increased undergo
Volume expansion. The size increases from all sides. The increase in volume depends on the coefficient of
volume expansion of the material.
Thermal Expansion Formula – Solved Example

Example: A rod of 5m length heated to 40°C. If the length increases 7 m after a few time. Find the thermal
expansion coefficient. The room temperature is 30°C.

Solution: Given:

Initial length Lo = 5 m,

Expanded length L = 7 m

Change in length Δ L = 7 – 5 = 2 m

Temperature difference Δ T = 40°C – 30°C = 10°C

Absolute temperature T = 10°C + 273

=283 K

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ALPHA α, BETA β AND GAMMA ɣ

β = 2α

ɣ = 3α

β = 2/3 ɣ

ɣ = 3/2 β

WORKED EXAMPLE

1 A solid metal cube of side 10cm, is heated from 100C to 60oC. If the linear expansivity of the metal is 1.2
x 10-5/K, calculate the increase in its volume.

SOLUTION

Original length, l1 = 10cm

Therefore, original volume = l1 x l1 x l1

= 10 x 10 x 10

= 1000cm3

Initial temperature, θ1= 1000C

Final temperature, θ2 = 60 0C

α = 1.2 x 10-5/K
Cubic expansivity, ɣ = 3α

= 3(1.2 x 10-5)

= 3.6 x 10-5/K

ɣ = ∆V/V1(θ2-θ1)

∆V = ɣ x V1(θ2-θ1)

= 3.6 x 10-5 x 1000 x (60-10)

= 3.6 x 10-2 x 50

= 1.8cm3

Real and Apparent Cubic Expansivity of Water

Real or absolute cubic expansivity (Yr) .The real / absolute of the liquid is the increase in volume by unit
volume per degree rise in temperature.

Apparent Cubic Expansivity (Ya)

The apparent cubic expansivity is the increase in volume per unit rise when heated in an expansible vessel.

Yr = Ya + Y

Anomalous Behaviour of Water

Most liquid except water expand when heated. This abnormal behavior of water is what is refer to as
anomalous expansion of water. When water is heated from 00C, it contracts until it reaches 40C and beyond
this point, water expands normally. The anomalous expansion of water takes place between 00C and 40C.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. The anomalous expansion of water takes place between/at ………………..A. 10C and 40C B. 00C
and 40C C. 40C and 250C D. all temperature
2. The SI unit of linear expansivity is ……… A. per Celsius B. per Fahrenheit C. per Kelvin D. per
Joules
3. If the linear expansivity of a solid is 1.8 X 10 -6 k-1, the area expansivity will be A.0.9 X 10 -6 B. 3.6
X 10 -6 C. 1.8 X 10 -6 D. 5.4 X 10-6
4. A metal of length 15.01m is heated until its temperature rises by 600C. If its new length is 15.05,
calculate its linear expansivity A. 0.0004/K B. 0.00004/K C. 0.004/K D. 0.04/K
5. The increase in volume of 10cm3 of mercury when the temperature rises by 1000C is 0.182cm3. What
is the cubic expansivity of mercury A. 0.000182/K B. 0.0000182/K C. 0.000187/K D. 0.000178/K
6. Explain the anomalous behavior of water
7. If a cube metal box made of iron of side 2cm is to be used for construction, and the expected
temperature difference is 900C. What will be the expected change in volume of the cube box if the
linear expansivity of iron is 1.25 X 10-5.
WEEK -5

TOPIC: Heat Transfer – Conduction, Convection, Radiation and Their Applications

LEARNING OBJECTIVE-

 State the mode of heat transfer

-Conduction

-Convection

-Radiation

 Explain the applications of the different modes of heat transfer

-Thermo Flask

-Land and sea breeze

MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER

Heat can be transferred by conduction, convection or radiation.

CONDUCTION

This is the process of transfer of heat through a material by vibration of the molecules fixed in position. N.B.
Metals that allow heat to pass through them are said to be good conductors of heat. Though all metals are
classified as good conductors, they differ in an ability to conduct heat. Non metal (wood / plastic) are bad
conductors that does not allow heat to pass through it. Thermal conductivity is simply the ability of a metal
to conduct heat.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF CONDUCTION OF HEAT

1. Kettle, pans and other utensils made of metals are provided with wooden or ebonite utensils so that
heat from to utensils is not conducted.
2. House old source pans are made of metals because metals are good conductors of heat and
electricity.
 3. Thick brick walls are used in the construction of storage rooms. Bricks are bad conductors of heat, so
it will not allow heat to enter the storage room.
4. A stone floor feels cold to the feet than a rug or a carpet on the same floor feels warm.

CONVECTION

Convection is the process by which heat energy is transferred in a fluid (liquid or gas) by actual movement
of the heated fluid. The direction of the motion of a filter paper indicates the circulation of heated water.
Circulation of a liquid is called CONVECTION CURRENT.

APPLICATION OF CONVECTION

Convection in liquid

1. Domestic water-boilers.
2. Cooling process of a motorcar vehicle.
3. Land and sea breezes.

Land and sea breezes

Convectional current set up in land and sea breezes. They occur mainly in coastal regions.

Sea breeze

During the day, heat from the sun passes straight from the air with little effect. The land is heated by the sun
more quickly than the sea because:

 It is a good absorber of heat.

 It is a good radiator.
 It has low specific heat capacity.

The air near the land thus warms up and rises while air from the sea moves into the land to replace the risen
air. Air from the higher atmosphere moves from the sea and then a circulation current is set up. The breeze
from the sea is known as the sea breeze.
Land breeze

During the night, land is not heated by the sun, so it cools very quickly. Temperature of the sea drops only
slightly and since it has been heated to a very high temperature, it retains more heat as a form of energy. As
a result of this, the sea is warmer than the land at night. Convectional current is therefore set in the opposite
direction in the day as a result of breeze blowing from land to the sea. This breeze from the land is called
land breeze.

Convection in gases

1. Chimneys in Kitchens
2. Ventilation of industrial buildings (up-cast and downcast)
3. Bonfires
4. Room radiators- when in use, the hot air rising from it can produce a shadow in the room by the sun
due to convection.
5. Glider lift- lift for aircraft used in flying sport. It is done by positioning the aircraft towards the roofs
of factories where air above is warmer than any other place. The rising convection current is called
thermal
6. Wind- convection currents in air when hot air rises from the equator and replaced by a colder or
denser air from the polar region. Wind depends on earth‟s rotation, large masses of land and sea over
which it passes and temperature.
7. Air conditional are placed at the top of wall in the room and not on the floor so that the hot air which
are less dense rises and are cooled while the colder air which are denser sink down hence. This
continuous process of rising and cooling of warm and cold air set up convectional currents which
cools the room.

RADIATION
Radiation is the process by which heat is transferred or conveyed from one place / point to another without
heating the interview medium. In radiation molecules are not involved, it differs from another method
because it does not require a medium for heat to be transferred. Heat from the sun reaches us by this method.
The energy given out as radiant heat is known as RADIANT ENERGY. This energy displace electrical and
magnetic properties and it said to be electromagnetic radiation and the name is INFARED.

APPLICATION OF RADIATION

1. It is not advisable to wear a dark shirt in the tropical sun.

2. Roofs of factories are coated with aluminum paint.
3. Shinning roofs and outside walls are painted with light colour in hot climate to keep the house cool.

Cooking utensils are darkening at the bottom and polished in the upper surface. The blacking surface will
allow the heat while the silver surface won‟t allow the heat to go out.

Thermos Flask

A thermos flask is used to keep the temperature of its content constant. The essential

Feature of a thermos flask are as follows:

1. Cork stopper – Prevent heat loss by conduction, conduction and Evaporation

2. Vacuum in the double wall – Reduce heat loss or gain by conduction and convection
3. Silvered wall surface – Minimize heat loss by radiation
4. Cork support – Prevent heat loss by conduction

Thermos flask is also known as vacuum flask.

WEEK- 6
TOPIC – Electric charges
CLASS- Year 10
LEARNING OBJECTIVE-
1. Define electric charges
2. List types of charges
3. Explain the production of electric charges
4. Describe how charges are distributed
5. Demonstrate how charges can be Stored
6. make a Gold leaf electroscope
7. State uses of gold leaf electroscope

8. Explain Lightning and lightning conductors

Introduction to Static Electricity

Static Electricity

The study of electric charges at rest is called electrostatics

All matter is made up of atoms or groups of atoms called molecules. In the center of each atom is the
nucleus. Inside the nucleus, there are particles with positive charges (+) and particles with a charge of zero.
The ones with positive charges are called protons and the ones with a charge of zero are called neutrons.
Particles with negative charges (-), called electrons, orbit around the nucleus.

Normally, the objects and materials around us are electrically neutral. This means that they don‟t have
either a positive or a negative charge. This is because they have an equal number of positive charges from
the protons and negative charges from the electrons

But it is possible to give a neutral material an electric charge. One way to do this is by rubbing two objects
together. Objects that have the same charge repel each other, Objects with opposite charges are attracted to
each other. why do charged particles repel or attract each other? Because they can exert force around
themselves. This is called an electric force. The area around the particle affected by this force is called an
electric field. We can show what an electric field looks like by drawing pictures with arrows called field
lines. You can see examples in the pictures below.
Electric field lines always point away from positive charges. But they point towards negative charges. If
particles have opposite charges, their field lines point towards each other. If particles have the same charge,
their field lines point away from each other.

The gold leaf electroscope

This is an instrument for detecting and measuring static electricity or voltage.

A metal disc is connected to a narrow metal plate and a thin piece of gold leaf is fixed to the plate. The
whole of this part of the electroscope is insulated from the body of the instrument. A glass front prevents air
draughts but allows you to watch the behaviour of the leaf.

When a charge is put on the disc at the top it spreads down to the plate and leaf. This means that both the
leaf and plate will have the same charge. Similar charges repel each other and so the leaf rises away from the
plate - the bigger the charge the more the leaf rises.

The leaf can be made to fall again by touching the disc - you have earthed the electroscope. An earth
terminal prevents the case from becoming live. The electroscope can be charged in two ways:

(a) by contact - a charged rod is touched on the surface of the disc and some of the charge is transferred to
the electroscope. This is not a very effective method of charging the electroscope.

(b) by induction - a charged rod is brought up to the disc and then the electroscope is earthed, the rod is then
removed.

The two methods give the gold leaf opposite charges.

The following diagrams show you how the charges spread over the plate and gold leaf in different
conditions.
The applications of gold leaf electroscope are:

1. To detect charges.
2. To identify the nature of charges.
3. Identify a body as conductor or insulator. The applications of gold leaf electroscope are:

LIGHNING CONDUCTORS

Lightning Conductor is a device used to protect buildings from the effect of lightning. A metallic rod, taller
than the building, is installed in the walls of the building during its construction. One end of the rod is kept
out in the air and the other is buried deep in the ground. The rod provides an easy route for the transfer of
electric charge to the ground. The process is called earthing.

The conductor works on the principle of induction. Whenever a charged cloud passes by the building, the
conductor gets charged opposite to that of the cloud through the process of induction. Now, this acquired
charge moves to the earth through the earthing system.
WEEK -8
TOPIC- Description and properties of field
CLASS- Year 10
LEARNING OBJECTIVES-
1. Describe property of fields.
2. Explain the concept of fields: Gravitational, electric and Magnetic
3. List properties of a force field
4. Define electric lines of force and state
-Properties of line of force
- Electric field pattern

DESCRIPTION OF FIELD:
Field is a region as space within which the influence of an agent is field. Field is a vector quantity. It has
magnitude and direction.

TYPES OF FIELD:
Field can be classified into scalar field and vector field.

SCALAR FIELD:
A scalar field is the type of field that has only magnitude and no direction. The direction of a scalar field
cannot be determined or known.

EXAMPLE OF SCALAR FIELD:

The following are examples of scalar field:

 Temperature
 Volume
 Mass
 Distance
 Length
 Area

VECTOR FIELD:
A vector field is the type of field that has both magnitude and direction. The magnitude and direction of the
field can be determined by either measurement or calculation using appropriate formulae.

EXAMPLES OF VECTOR FIELD:

 Gravitational field
 Electric field
 Magnetic field

1. GRAVITATIONAL FIELD:
Gravitational field is the region or space within which the influence of the force of gravity is felt. In
gravitational field, work is done against the force of gravity. It act over a distance. It acts around every
object that has mass. It is a force field. It influences the motion of object in the space where it operates.

ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY:

Acceleration due to gravity is the constant downward velocity of an object per second. It can also be defined
as the acceleration of an object under the influence of gravity whose velocity per second is 9.8 m/s.

VALUE OF ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY:

The value of acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m/s². It is uniform in a given place and the same for all types
of bodies irrespective of their masses. However, the value of acceleration due to gravity varies from place to
place. It is minimum at the equator ( 9.78 m/s²) and increases with increase in latitude to reach a maximum
value of 9.83m/s² at the pole of the earth.

MAGNETIC FIELD: Magnetic field is the region or space around a magnet within which the influence or
force of a magnet is felt by a magnetic substance or a magnet. It is a vector field. Magnets are substances
that attract magnetic substances. Magnetic substance is a substance that can be attracted by a magnet.

EXAMPLES OF MAGNETIC SUBSTANCES:

The followings are magnetic substances:

 Iron
 Cobalt
 Zinc
 Nickel

MAGNETISM:
Magnetism is the ability of a magnet to attract magnetic substance. The magnetism of a magnet is
concentrated at the poles of the magnet.

POLES OF A MAGNET:
Poles of a magnet is the ends of a magnet where the magnetic attraction or the magnetism of the magnet is
concentrated.

POSITION OF A FREELY SUSPENDED MAGNET:

When a bar magnet is suspended freely by means of a rope about its centre, the magnet come to rest with its
axis pointing approximately in the north – south direction. The end of the magnet that point in the northward
direction is the north pole while the other end that point approximately in the southward direction is the
south pole.
MAGNETIC LINE OF FORCE OF A MAGNET:

Magnetic line of force of a magnet is the line along which a free north would move if it is placed in the field.
It is also defined as the line such that a tangent to it at any point indicates the direction of the field at that
point

DIRECTION OF A LINE OF FORCE AT ANY POINT:

It is a direction in which a free North pole that is placed at that point would try to move or follow

ELECTRIC FIELD:
Electric field is the region or space around a charge object within which the influence or force of electric
charge is felt by another charged body.
It is a way of describing the action of one charge on another charge, from a distance.

ELECTRIC LINE OF FORCE:

Electric line of force is an imaginary line that is drawn in an electric field in such a way that the direction at
any point indicate the direction of the electric field at that point. Electric line of force can also be defined as
the path which an isolated small positive charge would follow if placed in the field.

TYPES OF FIELD LINES:

There are two types of field lines. They are:

Uniform field:
In a uniform field, the field lines are straight and are equally spaced out.

Variable field:
In a variable field, the field lines are curved and also equally spaced out.

PROPERTIES OF LINES OF FORCE:

Electric line of force has the following properties:

 Electric field line originates from the positive charge and terminates on the negative charge.
 The numbers of field lines that start or end on a charge is proportional to the magnitude of the
charge.
 Lines of force do not cross each other.
 Lines of force are straight, parallel and uniformly spaced in a uniform field.
 Lines of force indicate the direction of an electric field.
 Lines of force continue with any free charge.
WEEK -9-10
TOPIC- Current electricity
CLASS- Year 10
LEARNING OBJECTIVES-
1. Explain how charges are produced
2. Define Current and quantity of charge
1. Define Potential difference(p.d) and electric current
2. Explain how electric current is producedfrom mechanical, chemical, heat and solar energy
3. State Ohms law
4. Create electric circuit
5. Differentiate between conductors and insulators
6. calculate the electric work done in a given circuit

ELECTRICITY

Electric Current: The flow of electric charge is known as Electric Current, Electric current is carried by
moving electrons through a conductor.
By convention, electric current flows in the opposite direction to the movement of electrons. It is denoted by
I. Rate of flow means, the amount of charge flowing through a particular area in unit time

Electric Circuit: Electric circuit is a continuous and closed path of electric current. We have three types of
n circuits, open, closed, and short circuit.

If a net electric charge (Q) flows through a cross-section of a conductor in time t, then,

Where I is electric current, Q is a net charge and t is a time in second.

S.I. unit of electric current is ampere (A). Ampere is the flow of electric charge through a surface at the rate
of one coulomb per second. This means, if 1 coulomb of electric charge flows through a cross section for 1
second, it would be equal to 1 ampere.
Therefore, 1 A = 1 C/1 s

Small Quantity of Electric Current: Small quantity of electric current is expressed in milliampere and
microampere. Milliampere is written as mA and microampere as Pa.
1 Ma (milliampere) = 10-3 A
1 Pa (microampere) = 10-6 A

Ammeter: An apparatus to measure electric current in a circuit.

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

Electric Potential: The amount of electric potential energy at a point is called electric potential.
Potential Difference: The difference in the amount of electric potential energy between two points in an
electric circuit is called electric potential difference.
Electric potential difference is known as voltage, which is equal to the amount of work done to move the
unit charge between two points against static electric field.
Therefore, Voltage = WorkdoneCharge
Voltage or electric potential difference is denoted by V‟. Therefore, V = WQ
Where, W = Work done and Q = Charge

S.I. Unit of Electric Potential Difference (Voltage)

S.I. unit of electric potential difference is volt and denoted by „V‟ Since joule is the unit of work and
Coulomb is the unit of charge, 1 volt of electric potential difference is equal to the 1 joule of work to be
done to move a charge of 1 coulomb from one point to another in an electric circuit. Therefore
1V = 1Joule/1Coulomb = 1J/1C
1V = 1JC-1

Voltmeter: An apparatus to measure the potential difference or electric potential difference between two
points in an electric circuit. Galvanometer: It is a device to detect current in an electric circuit.

Ohm’s Law: Ohm‟s Law states that the potential difference between two points is directly proportional to
the electric current, at a constant temperature. This means potential difference V varies as electric current.
V∝I
V = RI
I = VR
R = VI
Where, R is constant for the given conductor at a given temperature and is called resistance.

Resistance: Resistance is the property of conductor which resists the flow of electric current through it.
S.I. unit of resistance is ohm. Ohm is denoted by Greek letter „Q‟

1 Ohm: 1 ohm (Q) of resistance I is equal to the flow 1A of current through a conductor between two points
having a potential difference equal to 1V.
This means; 1Ω = 1V1A
From the expression of Ohm‟s Law, it is obvious that electric current through a resistor is inversely
proportional to resistance. The graph of V (potential difference) versus I (electric current) is always a
straight line.
Graph of Potential Difference (V) Vs Electric Current (I)
Voltage, i.e. Potential 40ifference (V) = ?
We know, from Ohm‟s Law that,
R = VI
15 Ω = V15A
V = 225V

Resistance: Resistance is a property of conductor due to which it resists the flow of electric current through
it. A component that is used to resist the flow of electric current in a circuit is called a resistor.
In practical application, resistors are used to increase or decrease the electric current.

Variable Resistance: The component of an electric circuit which is used to regulate the current, without
changing the voltage from the source, is called variable resistance.

Rheostat: This is a device which is used in a circuit to provide variable resistance.

Cause of Resistance in a Conductor: Flow of electrons in a conductor is electric current. The positive
particles of conductor create hindrance to flow of electrons, because of attraction between them, this
hindrance is the cause of resistance in the flow of electricity.

FACTORS ON WHICH RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR DEPENDS:

Resistance in a conductor depends on nature, length and area of cross section of the conductor.
(i) Nature of Material: Some materials create least hindrance and hence, are called good conductors. Silver
is the best conductor of electricity. While some other materials create more hindrance in the flow of electric
current, i.e. flow of electrons through them. Such materials are called bad conductors. Bad conductor are
also known as insulators. Hard plastic is the one of the best insulators of electricity.

(ii) Length of Conductor: Resistance I is directly proportional to the length of the conductor. This means,
resistance increases with increase in length of the conductor. This is the cause that long electric wires create
more resistance to the electric current. Thus, Resistance I ∝ length of conductor (l)
or, R ∝ l …(i)

(iii) Area of Cross Section: Resistance R is inversely proportional to the area of cross section (A) of the
conductor. This means R will decrease with an increase in the area of conductor and vice versa. This is the
cause that thick copper wire creates less resistance to the electric current.
Thus, resistance I ∝ 1/Area of cross section of conductor (A)
or, R ∝ La ….(ii)
From equations (i) and (ii)
R ∝ La
R = ρ La
Where, ρ (rho) is the proportionality constant. It is called the electrical resistivity of the material of
conductor.
From equation (iii) RA = ρl ⇒ ρ = Ral ..(iv)

The S.I. of Resistivity: Since, the S.I. unit of R is Ω, S.I. unit of area is m2 and S.I. unit of length is m.
Hence, unit of resistivity (ρ) = Ω×m2m = Ωm
Thus, S.I. unit of resistivity (ρ) is Ωm.

Resistivity: It is defined as the resistance offered by a cube of a material of side 1m when current flows
perpendicular to its opposite faces. It‟s S.I. unit is ohm-meter (Ωm).
Resistivity, ρ = Ral
Resistivity is also known as specific resistance.
Resistivity depends on the nature of the material of the conductor.
Materials having a resistivity in the range of 10-8 Ωm to 10-6 Ωm are considered as very good conductors.
Conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity

COMBINATION OF RESISTORS (SERIES AND PARALLEL COMBINATION),

Combination of Resistors
(i) Series combination
(ii) Parallel combination.

1. Resistors in Series: When resistors are joined from end to end, it is called in series. In this
case, the total resistance of the system is equal to the sum of the resistance of all the resistors
in the system.

Let, three resistors R1, R2, and R3 get connected in series.

Potential difference across A and B = V
Potential difference across R1, R2 and R3 = V1, V2 and V3
Current flowing through the combination = I
We, know that
V= V1 + V2 + V3 …. (i)
According to Ohm‟s Law :
V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2 and V3 = IR3 ….. (ii)
Let, total resistance = Rs
Then, V = IRs …(iii)
From equations (i) and (ii) and (iii)
IRs = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
Rs = R1 + R2 + R3
When the resistors are connected in series, the current flowing through each resistor is the same and is equal
to the total current.

Resistors in Parallel: When resistors are joined in parallel, the reciprocal of the total resistance of the
system is equal to the sum of reciprocal of the resistance of resistors.

7.
 Let three resistors R1, R2 and R3 connected in parallel.
Potential difference across point A and B = V
Total current flowing between point A and B = I
Currents flowing through resistors R1, R2 and R3 = I1, I2 and I3 respectively.
We, know that,
I = I1 + I2 + I3 …….(i)
Since, the potential difference across R1, R2, and R3 is the same = V
According to Ohm‟s Law,

In parallel combination, the potential difference across each resistor is the same and is equal to the total
potential difference.
The total current through the circuit can be calculated by adding the electric current through individual
resistors.
Itotal = 6A + 48A + 30A + 12A + 24A = 120A

W=V×Q

P = VI=I2R=v2/R
H = Vit= I2Rt=v2/RT

Electric Power
S.I. unit of electric power is watt (W).
1W = 1 volt × 1 ampere = 1V × 1A
I kilowatt or 1Kw = 1000 W