SAMPLE CALCULATIONS & SUMMARY

Sec A:

1. Calculate the internal energy of a system, which gets 100 calories heat from the
surrounding and work done by the system is 44 calories. Here, q = 100 and w = – 44
So:
2. At what temperature will the following reaction proceed spontaneously if the ∆G=
33 kJ/mol, the ∆H = 128.9 kJ/mol and the ∆S= 0.482 kJ/mol?

2 NaHCO3 →Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O.

3. Derive the Relationship between Equilibrium Constant and Gibbs free energy.
4. Calculate ΔG° for conversion of oxygen to ozone 3/2 O2 (g) → O3 (g) at 300 K, if
Kp for this conversion is 9.47×10-29.

Solution of Q 1-4

1. ΔE = q + w ΔE = 100 – 44 ΔE = 56 calories

2. 2 NaHCO3 Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O

∆G= ∆H - T∆S (You are solving for T when ∆G is less than 0.)

0 > ∆𝐻 − 𝑇∆𝑆

0 > 128.9 − 0.482𝑇

-128.9 > -0.482T (Don’t forget to flip the inequality sign with division by a

negative number. 267.43K < T

 3. Relationship between Free Energy and Equilibrium Constant:

When equilibrium is not achieved, the reaction’s free energy change in any state is denoted

as ΔG, which is related to the reaction’s standard free energy change, ΔG°: ΔG = ΔG° +

RT InQ, where Q is the reaction quotient,

When equilibrium is achieved, there is no further change in free energy, i.e. ΔG = 0 and the

reaction quotient Q equals the equilibrium constant. As a result, the equation above will

appear like this:

ΔG° = –RT InKeq

Or, ΔG° = –2.303 RT log Keq

4. When both the reactants and the products are in their standard states,
3/2 O2(g) → O3(g)

Now, ΔG° = –2.303 RT log Kp

Where R = 8.314 J/K mol, Kp = 9.47×10-29, T = 300K

Thus, Gibbs energy, ΔG° = 160971 J/mol = 160.971 KJ/mol

SEC B
1. Calculate the standard heat of reaction (ΔHo) for the reaction of nitrogen monoxide gas
with oxygen to form nitrogen dioxide gas.

Solution
Step 1: List the known quantities and plan the problem.

Known

 ΔHof for NO(g) =90.4kJ/mol=90.4kJ/mol

 ΔHofΔ for O2(g) =0 (element)
 ΔHofΔ for NO2(g) =33.85kJ/mol

Unknown

First write the balanced equation for the reaction. Then apply the equation to calculate the
standard heat of reaction from the standard heats of formation.

Step 2: Solve.

The balanced equation is: 2NO (g) +O2(g) →2NO2(g)

Applying the equation from the text:

ΔHo=[2molNO2(33.85kJ/mol)]−[2molNO(90.4kJ/mol)+1molO2(0kJ/mol)]=−113kJ

The standard heat of reaction is −113kJ

Step 3: Think about your result.

The reaction is exothermic, which makes sense because it is a combustion reaction and
combustion reactions always release heat.

Summary
  An enthalpy change that occurs specifically under standard conditions is called the
standard enthalpy (or heat) of reaction and is given the symbol ΔHo. Standard heats
of reaction can be calculated from standard heats of formation.

2.Calculate ΔH for the following reaction:

8 Al(s) + 3 Fe3O4(s) → 4 Al2O3(s) + 9 Fe(s)
Solution
ΔH for a reaction is equal to the sum of the heats of
formation of the product compounds minus the sum
of the heats of formation of the reactant compounds:
ΔH = Σ ΔHf products - Σ ΔHf reactants
Omitting terms for the elements, the equation
becomes:
ΔH = 4 ΔHf Al2O3(s) - 3 ΔHf Fe3O4(s)
The values for ΔHf may be found in the Heats of
Formation of Compounds table. Plugging in these
numbers:
ΔH = 4(-1669.8 kJ) - 3(-1120.9 kJ)
ΔH = -3316.5 kJ
Answer
ΔH = -3316.5 kJ
3.Calculate ΔH for the ionization of hydrogen
bromide:
HBr(g) → H+(aq) + Br-(aq)
Solution
ΔH for a reaction is equal to the sum of the heats of
formation of the product compounds minus the sum
of the heats of formation of the reactant compounds:
ΔH = Σ ΔHf products - Σ ΔHf reactants
Remember, the heat of formation of H+ is zero. The
equation becomes:
ΔH = ΔHf Br-(aq) - ΔHf HBr(g)
The values for ΔHf may be found in the Heats of
Formation of Compounds of Ions table. Plugging in
these numbers:
ΔH = -120.9 kJ - (-36.2 kJ)
ΔH = -120.9 kJ + 36.2 kJ
ΔH = -84.7 kJ
SECTION C:
Enthalpy Change Chemistry Questions with
Solutions
Q4. What are the various factors that affect the
enthalpy of an atom?
Answer: Enthalpy is a thermodynamic parameter
that gauges the total heat present in a
thermodynamic system where the pressure is
regular. Various factors that affect the enthalpy of an
atom are mentioned below.
 Amount of reactant and product.
 Physical State of Reactants and Products.
 Allotropic Modification
 Temperature and Pressure
Q5. What is the enthalpy change?
Answer: The enthalpy change of an atom is defined
as the amount of heat absorbed or evolved in a
reaction carried out at a steady pressure.
Q6. Calculate the enthalpy change for the following
reaction:
CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) ⟶ CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (l)
Given that enthalpies of formation of CH4, CO2 and
H2O are 74.8 kJ mol−1, − 393.5 kJ mol−1, and − 286 kJ
mol−1, respectively.
Answer: Enthalpy of formation of CH4 = 74.8 kJ
mol−1,
Enthalpy of formation of CO2 = − 393.5 kJ mol−1
Enthalpy of formation of H2O = − 286 kJ mol−1
Enthalpy change = Δ HoPRODUCTS – Δ HoREATANTS
Enthalpy change = (Δ HoCO2 + Δ HoH2O) – (Δ HoCH4 + 2
Δ HoO2)
Enthalpy change = (− 393.5 kJ mol−1 + − 286 kJ
mol−1) – (74.8 kJ mol−1 + 2 x 0)
Enthalpy change = – 890.7 kJ mol−1
Q7. Calculate the enthalpy of formation of OH– ions
at 25o C from the following thermochemical data.
H2O (l) → H+ (aq) + OH– (aq); Δ HO = 57.3 kJ
H2 + ½ O2 (g) → H2O (l); Δ HO = – 285.9 kJ
Answer: Foremost, we will add first two-equation.
H2 (g) + ½ O2 (g) → H+ (aq) + OH– (aq); Δ HO = 57.3
kJ – 285.9 kJ = – 228.6 kJ.
Hence, Δ HO = – 228.6 kJ = 0 + Δ HfO (OH– (aq)) –
(0+0), since, by convention, Δ HfO [H+(aq)] = 0,
Hence, Δ HfO [OH– (aq)] = – 228.6 kJ.
Q8. The enthalpy of combustion of glucose
C6H12O6 (s) is – 2816 kJ mol-1 at 25o C. Calculate Δ
HfO C6H12O6. The HfO values for CO2 (g) and H2O (l)
are – 393.5 and – 285.9 kJ mol-1, respectively.
Answer: C6H12O6 (s) + 6 O2 (g) → 6 CO2 (g) + 6
H2O (l); Δ HO = – 2816 kJ.
Since Δ H = ∑ Δ HfO (products) – ∑ Δ
HfO (reactants), we find that
– 2816 kJ = (6 X 393.5 kJ mol-1) + (6 X – 285.9 kJ
mol-1) – Δ HfO (C6H12O6) – 6 Δ HfO (O2)
We know that, Δ HfO (O2) = 0
So, Δ HfO (C6H12O6) = – 1260.4 kJ mol-1.
Q9. Calculate the enthalpy of combustion of
methane at 25o C and 1 atm pressure.
Given that Δ HfO (CO2) = – 393.5 kJ mol-1, Δ
HfO (H2O) = – 285.9 kJ mol-1 and Δ HfO (CH4) = -
74.8 kJ mol-1.
Answer: The combustion of methane is referenced
as
CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2 H2O
Δ Ho = Δ Hfo (CO2) + 2 Δ Hfo (H2O) – Δ Hfo (CH4) –
0
Δ Ho = (- 393.5 kJ mol-1 ) + 2 X (- 285.9 kJ mol-1) –
(- 74.8 kJ mol-1)
Δ Ho = – 890.5 kJ mol-1.
Thus, the enthalpy of combustion of methane at
25o C and 1 atm pressure = – 890.5 kJ mol-1.
Q10. One mole of a non-ideal gas undergoes a state
change from (2 atm, 3 L, 95 K) to (4 atm, 5 L, 245
K) with a change of internal energy, Δ U = 30 L atm.
What is the difference in enthalpy (Δ H)?
Answer: Change in enthalpy = Δ H = Δ U + Δ (PV)
Change in enthalpy = Δ H = Δ U + (P2 V2 – P1 V1)
Change in enthalpy = Δ H = 30 + (20 – 6)
Change in enthalpy = Δ H = 44 L atm.
Q11. The reaction of cyanamide NH2CN (s) with

△ U was found to be − 742.7 kJ mol−1 at 298 K.

dioxygen was carried out in a bomb calorimeter, and

NH2CN (g) + 23 O2 (g) → N2 (g) + CO2 (g) + H2O

(l)
Calculate the enthalpy change for the reaction at 298
K?
Answer: For the given reaction, Δ n = 1 + 1 − 1.5 =
0.5.
Moreover, Δ H = Δ U + Δng RT
Δ H = − 742.7 + 0.5 X 8.314 X 10−3 X 298
Δ H = − 742.7 + 1.2
Δ H = − 741.5 kJ mole−1.
Q12. The combustion of one mole of benzene occurs
at 298 K, and 1 atm after combustion, CO2 (g) and
H2O (l) are produced, and 3267.0 KJ of heat is
liberated. Calculate the standard enthalpy of
formulation Δ Hf of benzene. Given the standard
enthalpy of formation of CO2 (g) and H2O (l) are –
393.5 KJ mole-1 and – 285.83 KJ mole-1.
 Answer: Reaction: C6H6 + 15/2 O2 → 6 CO2 + 3
H2O, Δ Hrxn = − 3267 KJKJ mole-1
Δ Hrxn = 6 Δ Hf CO2 + 3 Δ Hf H2O − Δ Hf C6H6
Δ Hf (Benzene) = 6 X (− 393.5) + 3 X (− 285.8) +
3267
Δ Hf (Benzene) = − 3218.49 + 3267
Δ Hf (Benzene) = 48.51 KJ.
A PHASE DIAGRAMS
A pressure-temperature graph summarizing
conditions under which the phases of a substances
can exist. A phase diagram combines plots of
pressure versus temperature for the liquid-gas, solid-
liquid, and solid-gas phase-transition equilibria of a
substance. The diagrams indicate the physical states
that exist under specific conditions of pressure and
temperature, and also provide the pressure
dependence of the phase-transition temperatures. The
physical state of a substance and its phase-transition
temperatures are represented graphically in a phase
diagram.

To illustrate the utility of these plots, consider the

phase diagram for water shown, the pressure and
temperature axes on this phase diagram of water are
not drawn to constant scale in order to illustrate
several important properties.
We can use the phase diagram to identify the
physical state of a sample of water under specified
conditions of pressure and temperature. For
example, a pressure of 50 kPa and a temperature of
−10 °C correspond to the region of the diagram
labeled “ice.” Under these conditions, water exists
only as a solid (ice). A pressure of 50 kPa and a
temperature of 50 °C correspond to the “water”
region—here, water exists only as a liquid. At 25
kPa and 200 °C, water exists only in the gaseous
state. Note that on the H2O phase diagram, the
pressure and temperature axes are not drawn to a
constant scale in order to permit the illustration of
several important features as described here.
The curve BC is the plot of vapor pressure versus
temperature. This “liquid-vapor” curve separates the
liquid and gaseous regions of the phase diagram and
provides the boiling point for water at any pressure.
For example, at 1 atm, the boiling point is 100 °C.
Notice that the liquid-vapor curve terminates at a
temperature of 374 °C and a pressure of 218 atm,
indicating that water cannot exist as a liquid above
this temperature, regardless of the pressure.
The solid-vapor curve, labeled AB in, indicates the
temperatures and pressures at which ice and water
vapor are in equilibrium. These temperature-pressure
data pairs correspond to the sublimation, or
deposition, points for water. If we could zoom in on
the solid-gas line in, we would see that ice has a
vapor pressure of about 0.20 kPa at −10 °C. Thus, if
we place a frozen sample in a vacuum with a
pressure less than 0.20 kPa, ice will sublime. This is
the basis for the “freeze-drying” process often used
to preserve foods, such as the ice cream.
Freeze-dried foods, like this ice cream, are
dehydrated by sublimation at pressures below the
triple point for water. The solid-liquid curve labeled
BD shows the temperatures and pressures at which
ice and liquid water are in equilibrium, representing
the melting/freezing points for water. Note that this
curve exhibits a slight negative slope (greatly
exaggerated for clarity), indicating that the melting
point for water decreases slightly as pressure
increases. Water is an unusual substance in this
regard, as most substances exhibit an increase in
melting point with increasing pressure. This
behavior is partly responsible for the movement of
glaciers, like the one shown in . The bottom of a
glacier experiences an immense pressure due to its
weight that can melt some of the ice, forming a layer
of liquid water on which the glacier may more easily
slide.The immense pressures beneath glaciers result
in partial melting to produce a layer of water that
provides lubrication to assist glacial movement. The
point of intersection of all three curves is labeled B
in. At the pressure and temperature represented by
this point, all three phases of water coexist in
equilibrium. This temperature-pressure data pair is
called the triple point. At pressures lower than the
triple point, water cannot exist as a liquid, regardless
of the temperature.Consider the phase diagram for
carbon dioxide shown in as another example. The
solid-liquid curve exhibits a positive slope,
indicating that the melting point for CO2 increases
with pressure as it does for most substances (water
being a notable exception as described previously).
Notice that the triple point is well above 1 atm,
indicating that carbon dioxide cannot exist as a
liquid under ambient pressure conditions. Instead,
cooling gaseous carbon dioxide at 1 atm results in its
deposition into the solid state. Likewise, solid
carbon dioxide does not melt at 1 atm pressure but
instead sublimes to yield gaseous CO2. Finally,
notice that the critical point for carbon dioxide is
observed at a relatively modest temperature and
pressure in comparison to water.
The pressure and temperature axes on this phase
diagram of carbon dioxide are not drawn to constant
scale in order to illustrate several important
properties.

CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING

TERMINOLOGIES:
 Triple point – the point on a phase diagram at
which the three states of matter: gas, liquid, and
solid coexist or temperature and pressure at
which the vapor, liquid and solid phases of a
substance are in equilibrium
  Critical point – the point on a phase diagram at
which the substance is indistinguishable between
liquid and gaseous states or Temperature and
pressure above which a gas cannot be condensed
into a liquid.
 Fusion(melting) (or freezing) curve – the
curve on a phase diagram which represents the
transition between liquid and solid states
 Vaporization (or condensation) curve – the
curve on a phase diagram which represents the
transition between gaseous and liquid states
 Sublimation (or deposition) curve – the curve
on a phase diagram which represents the
transition between gaseous and solid states
 Supercritical fluid; substance at a temperature
and pressure higher than its critical point;
exhibits properties intermediate between those
of gaseous and liquid states.

CRITICAL TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE

OF THE SUBUSTANCES
Substance Critical Critical
 Temperature (K) Pressure (atm)
hydrogen 33.2 12.8
nitrogen 126.0 33.5
oxygen 154.3 49.7
carbon 304.2 73.0
dioxide
Sulphur 430.3 77.7
dioxide
Water 647.1 217.7

TUTORIALS
A: Some theory
1.Explain how the 1st Law of Thermodynamics is
related to the 2nd Law.
2.Explain on the enthalpies of vaporisation and
fusion
3.Boiling of liquid is accompanied with increase in
the…..
4.What do you know about the system?
5.State Different Branches of Thermodynamics
6.Compare Isothermal and Adiabatic Expansion
7.Write notes on
i. Enthalpy Change of a Reaction
ii. Adiabatic process
 iii. Difference between Isothermal and
Adiabatic
iv. Spontaneous reactions
B: Some Calculations
Q1. Calculate the standard enthalpy of formation of
methanol using the following data.
CH3OH (l) + 3/2 O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (l)
…………….. (ΔH = − 726 kJmpl−1)
C (graphite) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g)
………………………………(ΔH = − 393 kJmol−1)
H2 (g) + 1/2 O2 (g) → H2O (l)
………………………………….(ΔH = − 286
kJmol−1)
Q-2: ΔH= -25kcal for the reaction CH4(g) +Cl2(g)
→ CH3Cl(g) + HCl(g).
Bond Bond Energy(kCal)

C-Cl 84

H-Cl 103

C-H X

Cl-Cl Y

x:y 9:5

What is the bond enthalpy of Cl-Cl bond? Use the

given data to calculate the answer.
Q-3: For the reaction,
N2(g) + 2O2(g) → 2NO2(g) ΔH = -66 kJ
Calculate the value of ΔfH of NO2.
Q-4: The enthalpy changes of the following
reactions at 27oC are
1) Na(s) + ½ Cl2(g) → NaCl (s) ; ΔfH= -411kJ/mol
2) H2(g) + S(s) + 2O2(g) → H2SO4 (l) ; ΔfH= -
811kJ/mol
3) 2Na(s) +S(s) + 2O2(g) → Na2SO4 (s) ; ΔfH= -
1382kJ/mol
4) ½ H2(g) + ½ Cl2(g) → HCl (g) ; ΔfH= -92 kJ/mol
From the above data, the heat change of reaction at
constant volume (in kJ/mol) at 27oC for the process;
2NaCl(s) + H2SO4 (l) → Na2SO4 (s) + 2HCl (g) is:
Q-5: Heat of combustion for benzene and acetylene
are -3900 and -642 joule. Then calculate the heat of
reaction (per mole) for the following reaction.
3C2H2→ C6H6
Q-6: For combustion of one mole of magnesium in
an open container at 300 K and 1 bar pressure, ΔCH=
-601.70kJ/mol, the magnitude of change in internal
energy for the reaction is _________ kJ. (Nearest
integer)
Given: R= 8.3 J/Kmol
Q-7: Which of the following pairs are correctly
matched?
i) Arrhenius Variation of enthalpy of a
Equation reaction with temperature

ii) Kirchhoff Variation of rate constant with

equation temperature

Entropy of an isolated system

iii) Second law of tends to increase and reach a
thermodynamics maximum value

Enthalpy change in a reaction

iv) Hess’s law of is always constant and
constant heat independent of the manner in
summation which the reaction occurs.

Q-8: From the following data at 25oC

Reaction ΔfHo (kJ/mol)

½ H2(g) + ½ O2(g)→ OH(g) 42

H2(g) + ½ O2(g)→ H2O(g) -242

H2(g)→2H(g) 436

O2(g)→2O(g) 495

Calculate the ΔfHo for the reaction H2O(g)→ 2H(g)

+ O(g)
Q-9 From the phase diagram for water, determine
the state of water at:
a. 35 °C and 85 kPa
b. −15 °C and 40 kPa
c. −15 °C and 0.1 kPa
d. 75 °C and 3 kPa
e. 40 °C and 0.1 kPa
f. 60 °C and 50 kPa
Q-10 What phase changes will take place when
water is subjected to varying pressure at a constant
temperature of 0.005 °C? At 40 °C? At −40 °C?
Q-11 At low pressures and 0.005 °C, the water is a
gas. As the pressure increases to 4.6 torr, the water
becomes a solid; as the pressure increases still more,
it becomes a liquid. At 40 °C, water at low pressure
is a vapor; at pressures higher than about 75 torr, it
converts into a liquid. At −40 °C, water goes from a
gas to a solid as the pressure increases above very
low values.
Q-12 Pressure cookers allow food to cook faster
because the higher pressure inside the pressure
cooker increases the boiling temperature of water. A
particular pressure cooker has a safety valve that is
set to vent steam if the pressure exceeds 3.4 atm.
What is the approximate maximum temperature that
can be reached inside this pressure cooker? Explain
your reasoning.
Q-13 From the phase diagram for carbon dioxide in,
determine the state of CO2 at:
a. 20 °C and 1000 kPa
b. 10 °C and 2000 kPa
c. 10 °C and 100 kPa
 d. −40 °C and 500 kPa
e. −80 °C and 1500 kPa
f. −80 °C and 10 kPa
Q-14 Determine the phase changes that carbon
dioxide undergoes as the pressure changes if the
temperature is held at −50 °C? If the temperature is
held at −40 °C? At 20 °C?

Q-15 Consider a cylinder containing a mixture of

liquid carbon dioxide in equilibrium with gaseous
carbon dioxide at an initial pressure of 65 atm and a
temperature of 20 °C. Sketch a plot depicting the
change in the cylinder pressure with time as gaseous
carbon dioxide is released at constant temperature.

Q-16 Using the phase diagram for water given in,

determine the state of water at the following
temperatures and pressures:

a. −10 °C and 50 kPa

 b.25 °C and 90 kPa
c. 50 °C and 40 kPa
d. 80 °C and 5 k
e. −10 °C and 0.3 kPa
f. 50 °C and 0.3 kPa
Q-17 The Critical Temperature of Carbon
Dioxide
If we shake a carbon dioxide fire extinguisher on a
cool day (18 °C), we can hear liquid CO2 sloshing
around inside the cylinder. However, the same
cylinder appears to contain no liquid on a hot
summer day (35 °C). Explain these observations.
Q-18 Consider a cylinder containing a mixture of
liquid carbon dioxide in equilibrium with gaseous
carbon dioxide at an initial pressure of 65 atm and a
temperature of 20 °C. Sketch a plot depicting the
change in the cylinder pressure with time as gaseous
carbon dioxide is released at constant temperature.
Q-19 From the phase diagram for water, determine
the state of water at:
g.35 °C and 85 kPa
h. −15 °C and 40 kPa
i. −15 °C and 0.1 kPa
j. 75 °C and 3 kPa
k. 40 °C and 0.1 kPa
l. 60 °C and 50 kPa
Q-20 What phase changes will take place when
water is subjected to varying pressure at a constant
temperature of 0.005 °C? At 40 °C? At −40 °C?
Q-21 At low pressures and 0.005 °C, the water is a
gas. As the pressure increases to 4.6 torr, the water
becomes a solid; as the pressure increases still
more, it becomes a liquid. At 40 °C, water at low
pressure is a vapor; at pressures higher than about
75 torr, it converts into a liquid. At −40 °C, water
goes from a gas to a solid as the pressure increases
above very low values.
Q-22 Pressure cookers allow food to cook faster
because the higher pressure inside the pressure
cooker increases the boiling temperature of water. A
particular pressure cooker has a safety valve that is
set to vent steam if the pressure exceeds 3.4 atm.
What is the approximate maximum temperature that
can be reached inside this pressure cooker? Explain
your reasoning.
Q-23 From the phase diagram for carbon dioxide in,
determine the state of CO2 at:
g.20 °C and 1000 kPa
h. 10 °C and 2000 kPa
i. 10 °C and 100 kPa
j. −40 °C and 500 kPa
k. −80 °C and 1500 kPa
l. −80 °C and 10 kPa
Q-24 Determine the phase changes that carbon
dioxide undergoes as the pressure changes if the
temperature is held at −50 °C? If the temperature is
held at −40 °C? At 20 °C?

Q-25 Consider a cylinder containing a mixture of

liquid carbon dioxide in equilibrium with gaseous
carbon dioxide at an initial pressure of 65 atm and a
temperature of 20 °C. Sketch a plot depicting the
change in the cylinder pressure with time as gaseous
carbon dioxide is released at constant temperature.

Q-26 Using the phase diagram for water given in,

determine the state of water at the following
temperatures and pressures:

g.−10 °C and 50 kPa

h.25 °C and 90 kPa
i. 50 °C and 40 kPa
j. 80 °C and 5 k
k. −10 °C and 0.3 kPa
l. 50 °C and 0.3 kPa
Q-27 The Critical Temperature of Carbon
Dioxide
If we shake a carbon dioxide fire extinguisher on a
cool day (18 °C), we can hear liquid CO2 sloshing
around inside the cylinder. However, the same
cylinder appears to contain no liquid on a hot
summer day (35 °C). Explain these observations.
Q-28 Consider a cylinder containing a mixture of
liquid carbon dioxide in equilibrium with gaseous
carbon dioxide at an initial pressure of 65 atm and a
temperature of 20 °C. Sketch a plot depicting the
change in the cylinder pressure with time as gaseous
carbon dioxide is released at constant temperature.