COMP232

Introduction to Discrete Mathematics

Integers and Division

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Integers and Division

We review some basic elements of number theory

and introduce notions needed for the rest of the course.
Elements of number theory are needed in:

I Data structures,
I random number generation,
I encryption of data for secure data transmission,
I scheduling,
I etc.

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Division

Definition
For integers a and b with a 6= 0 we define
a divides b iff ∃c ∈ Z b = ac.
a divides b is written as a | b
We call a a factor of b and b a multiple of a.

Example
3 | 15
3 6 | 16
4 | 16
16 6 | 4

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Theorem

Let a, b, and c be integers. Then

1. if a | b and a | c then a | (b + c).

2. if a | b then a | bc for all integers c.

3. if a | b and b | c then a | c.

Note: Prove this theorem!

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Partial Proof

Let a, b, and c be integers. Then

1. if a | b and a | c then a | (b + c).

Direct proof: If a| b and a | c then there exist k1 , k2 , k3 ∈ Z
such that:
b = k1 · a, c = k2 · a and thus
(b + c) = k1 a + k2 a = (k1 + k2 )a = k3 a and a|(b + c).

2. if a | b then a | bc for all integers c.

3. if a | b and b | c then a | c.

Note: Prove the rest of this theorem!

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Prime and composite numbers

Definition
A prime is a positive integer p that has exactly two distinct
positive factors, 1 and p.
A positive integer greater than 1 which is not a prime is called
composite.

Example
Primes: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 29, 53, 997, 7951, . . .
Composites: 4 = 2 · 2, 6 = 2 · 3, 35 = 5 · 7, 57 = 3 · 19, etc.

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Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic

Let Pr = {pi |pi is the ith prime where i ∈ Z}.

Theorem
Every positive integer x can be written uniquely as a product of
primes, where the prime factors are written in order of their size.
x = p1a1 p2a2 . . . pnan . . .

Example
40 = 2 · 2 · 2 · 5 = 23 · 5
42 = 2 · 3 · 7
780 = 2 · 2 · 3 · 5 · 13 = 22 · 3 · 5 · 13
550 = 2 · 5 · 5 · 11 = 2 · 52 · 11

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Bounded search space

Theorem √
If n is a composite number then n has a factor ≤ n.

Note that factors come in pairs, {k , kn }: n = k kn

Proof.
n is composite, thus by definition there exist a, b ∈ Z with
1 < a < n and 1 < b < n such that n = ab.
√ √
Show that a ≤ n or b ≤ n by contradiction:
√ √
Assume that both a ≥ n and b ≥ n.
√ √
Then n = ab ≥ n n = n, a contradiction.

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Example
n = 311
√ .
311 = 17.6 ≤ 20
Test dividing by 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17.
Since none of these divides 311, it is a prime.

Example
n = 253
√ .
253 = 15.9
Test division by 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13.
253 = 11*23

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Encryption algorithms

Factorization of very large numbers by computers is a difficult

problem.
This fact is used by some encryption systems like the
RSA encryption system, named after the inventors Rivest,
Shamir, and Adelman.
Breaking a code would require factoring numbers with 250 to
500 digits that have only two prime factors, both large primes.

Modern encryption cannot rely only on factorization of large

numbers anymore.

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The Division Algorithm

Theorem
Let a be an integer and d a positive integer. Then there exist
unique integers q and r , 0 ≤ r < d, such that

a = dq + r

a is called the dividend

d is called the divisor
r is called the remainder
q is called the quotient.

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GCD and LCM
Definition
GCD(a, b), called the greatest common divisor of a and b, is
the largest factor of both a and b, where ab > 0.
When GCD(a, b) = 1, we say that a and b are relatively prime
(or coprime)

GCD(18, 24) = 6
GCD(18, 13) = 1

Definition
LCM(a, b), called the least common multiple of a and b, is the
smallest integer with both a and b as factors.

LCM(8, 6) = 24
LCM(8, 12) = 24
LCM(11, 17) = 11 · 17 = 187
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GCD and LCM

The prime factorization of a and b can be used to find

GCD(a, b) or LCM(a, b):

Example
780 = 2 · 2 · 3 · 5 · 13 = 22 · 3 · 5 · 13
550 = 2 · 5 · 5 · 11 =2 · 52 · 11
GCD(780, 550) = 2 · 5 = 10
take the factors common to both numbers.
LCM(780, 550) = 22 · 3 · 52 · 11 · 13 = 42900
take all factors in both numbers with highest exponent.

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GCD and LCM
If a = p1a1 p2a2 · · · pnan and
b = p1b1 p2b2 · · · pnbn
min(a1 ,b1 ) min(a2 ,b2 ) min(an ,bn )
gcd(a, b) = p1 p2 · · · pn
max(a1 ,b1 ) max(a2 ,b2 ) max(an ,bn )
lcm(a, b) = p1 p2 · · · pn
Note that min(ai , bi ) + max(ai , bi ) = ai + bi , leading to

Theorem
Let a and b be positive integers. Then

ab = gcd(a, b) · lcm(a, b)

Example
GCD(780, 550) = 2 · 5 = 10
780 · 550 = 429000
LCM(780, 550) = 42900
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Co-prime integers

Definition
The integers a and b are said to be co-prime or relatively prime
if gcd(a, b) = 1.

Example
6 and 25 are co-prime, as gcd(6, 25) = 1

Example
6 and 27 are not co-prime, since gcd(6, 27) = 3 6= 1

Example
Any two distinct prime numbers are relatively prime

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Exercise
Find all pairs of numbers (a, b) such that
gcd(a, b) = 6 and lcm(a, b) = 540.

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Exercise solved

Find all pairs of numbers (a, b) such that

gcd(a, b) = 6 and lcm(a, b) = 540.

a · b = gcd(a, b)lcm(a, b) = 6 · 540 = 3240 = 2 · 3 · 22 · 33 · 5

min(a2 , b2 ) = 1 max(a2 , b2 ) = 2
min(a3 , b3 ) = 1 max(a3 , b3 ) = 3
min(a5 , b5 ) = 0 max(a5 , b5 ) = 1

{(6, 540), (540, 6), (30, 108), (108, 30)} is the set of all pairs
(a, b).

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Eucledean Algorithm — motivation

Find gcd(91, 287)

287 = 91 · 3 + 14
Note: for all a ∈ Z: a|287 → a|(91 · 3 + 14) → a|91 ∧ a|14
Thus gcd(287, 91) = gcd(91, 14)

91 = 14 · 6 + 7
14 = 7 · 2
gcd(287, 91) = gcd(91, 14) = gcd(14, 7) = 7

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Eucledean Algorithm

Theorem
Let a = bq + r , where a, b, q, r ∈ Z. Then gcd(a, b) = gcd(b, r ).

Proof: Let d = gcd(a, b)

I If d|a ∧ d|b then d|a − bq and since r = a − bq: d|r .
I If d|b ∧ d|r then d|bq + r ∧ d|a

Hence gcd(a, b) = gcd(b, r ).

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Modular Arithmetic

Definition
Let a ∈ Z and m ∈ Z+ with m ≥ 2.
Let a = mq + r and 0 ≤ (a mod m) < m.
a mod m = r = a − m · q

Example
8 mod 7 = 1
12 mod 7 = 5
21 mod 7 = 0

Example
Since the result of the mod operation must be ≥ 0 and < 7,
−3 mod 7 = 4 since −3 = −1 · 7 + 4
−22 mod 6 = 2 since −22 = −4 · 6 + 2

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Example of the use of mod

A scheduling problem:
We have processors 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
and jobs 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, ...
Scheduling: Given a job number, select a processor on which
to execute the job.
Round-robin scheduling:
jobs 1, 6, 11, 16, 21, ... are done on processor 2
jobs 2, 7, 12, 17, 22, ... are done on processor 3
jobs 3, 8, 13, 18, 23, ... are done on processor 4
jobs 4, 9, 14, 19, 24, ... are done on processor 5
jobs 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, ... are done on processor 1
job i is assigned to processor (i mod 5) + 1

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Congruences

Definition
Let a and b be integers and m be a positive integer. We say that
a is congruent to b modulo m if m | (a − b).

a ≡ b (modm)

Example
5 | (14 − 9) ⇐⇒ 14 ≡ 9(mod5)
5 | (19 − 9) ⇐⇒ 19 ≡ 9(mod5)
5 | (32 − 12) ⇐⇒ 32 ≡ 12(mod5)
7 | (14 − 7) ⇐⇒ 14 ≡ 7(mod7)

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Theorem

Let a and b be integers and m be a positive integer.

a ≡ b (modm) ⇐⇒ (a mod m) = (b mod m)

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Theorem

Let a and b be integers and m be a positive integer.

a ≡ b (modm) ⇐⇒ (a mod m) = (b mod m)

Proof.
⇒
a ≡ b (modm) ⇒ a − b = km for k ∈ Z (*)
Since a = mq1 + r1 and b = mq2 + r2 for suitable integers
q1 , q2 , r1 , r2 by division algorithm
a − b = (mq1 + r1 ) − (mq2 + r2 ) = m(q1 − q2 ) − (r1 − r2 )
and by (*)
k = q1 − q2 and r1 = r2 and thus a mod m = b mod m

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Theorem
Let a and b be integers and m be a positive integer.
a ≡ b (modm) ⇐⇒ (a mod m) = (b mod m)

Proof.
⇐
Let (a mod m) = (b mod m) = r
a mod m = r = a − m · ki from definition of mod and division
algorithm for some ki ∈ Z.
b mod m = r = b − m · kii from definition of mod and division
algorithm for some ki ∈ Z.
a − m · ki = b − m · kii
a − b = ki m − kii m = (ki − kii )m and since ki − kii − k ∈ Z,
a ≡ b (modm) by definition

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Theorem
Let a and b be integers and m be a positive integer.

a ≡ b (modm) iff a = b + km for some integer k

Proof.
If a ≡ b(modm), then m|(a − b) by definition.
Thus there exists k ∈ Z with a − b = km and a = b + km.
Conversely, if there is a k ∈ Z such that a = b + km, then
km = a − b.

Hence, m divides a − b and a ≡ b (modm)

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Exercise

Find all integers congruent to 7 modulo 6.

It is the infinite set {a : a = 7 + 6k, k ∈ Z }.
7 ≡ 13 (mod6) 7 ≡ 19 (mod6)
7 ≡ 25 (mod6) 7 ≡ 31 (mod6)
7 ≡ 37 (mod6) 7 ≡ 1 (mod6)
7 ≡ −5 (mod6) 7 ≡ −11 (mod6)

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Theorem
Let m be a positive integer. If a ≡ b (modm) and
c ≡ d (modm) then

a + c ≡ b + d (modm)

a · c ≡ b · d (modm)

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Exercise
Show that if a, b, c, and m are integers such that m ≥ 2, c > 0,
and
a ≡ b (mod m), then ac ≡ bc (mod mc).

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Proof.
Direct Proof to show that if a, b, c, and m are integers such that
m ≥ 2, c > 0, and a ≡ b (mod m), then ac ≡ bc (mod mc).

Assume
A a ≡ b (mod m)
B a, b, c, and m are integers such that m ≥ 2, c > 0, and
a ≡ b (mod m)
C ac ≡ bc (mod mc)

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Proof.
Direct Proof to show that if a, b, c, and m are integers such that
m ≥ 2, c > 0, and a ≡ b (mod m), then ac ≡ bc (mod mc).

Assume a, b, c, and m are integers such that m ≥ 2, c > 0, and

a ≡ b (mod m).
Then m|(a − b) or a − b = km for some k ∈ Z.
Then ac − bc = kcm for all integers c
and thus mc|ac − bc or ac ≡ bc (mod mc)

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