Understanding the Self (Block B - 1st Semester)

Module 1: The Self from the Perspective of Philosophy

Socrates
- His method discovering what for is essential in the world and in people is what we known as
the SOCRATIC/DIALECTIC METHOD.

Socratic/Dialectic Method
- Involves the search for the correct/proper definition of a thing.
- In this method, Socrates did not lecture, he instead would ask questions and engage the
person in a discussion.
- The goal is to bring the person closer to the final understanding.
- "I cannot teach anybody anything, I can only make them think."
- His method allowed him to question people's beliefs and ideas, exposing their misconceptions
and get them to touch their souls. The touching of the soul may mean helping the person to get
in touch with the true self.
- The true self for him is not the body but the soul.

Plato
- He also believed that knowledge lies within the person's soul.

Plato described the soul as having three components: (RSA)

1. The Reason - It is rational and is the motivation for goodness and truth. This is also where
consequences also play in.
2. The Spirited - It is non-rational and is the will or the drive towards action. This part of the soul
is initially neutral but can be influenced/pulled in two directions.
3. The Appetites - These are irrational and lean towards the desire for pleasure of the body.

Theory of Forms
- Plato's metaphysics or the study on the causes and nature of things
- It explains that "FORMS" refers to what are real. FORMS are not objects that are encountered
with the senses but can only be grasped intellectually. Also it has the following characteristics:
1. The forms are ageless and therefore are eternal.
2. The forms are unchanging and therefore permanent.
3. The forms are unmoving and indivisible.

Dualism
- It is the existence of two realms according to Plato.
- The first realm is called the "Realm of the Shadows". It is composed of changing, "sensible"
things which are lesser entities and therefore imperfect and flawed. In simple terms, it
composed of the physical world and we experience it through our five senses.
- The second realm is called the "Realm of Forms", and it is composed of eternal things which
are permanent and perfect. It is the source of all reality and true knowledge. In simple terms, it
is our abstract world.

St. Augustine of Hippo

- He wanted to know more about moral evil and why it existed in people, his personal desire for
sensual pleasures and questions about all the sufferings in the world.

His thought focused on two realms:

1. God as the source of all the reality and truth. - - According to him, without God as the source
of all truth, man could never understand eternal truths. So God is within man and transcends
him. This relationship with God means that those who know most about God will come closest
to understanding the true nature of the world.

2. The Sinfulness of Man

- According to him, the cause of sin or evil is an act of man's free will. Evil therefore does not
live in God's creatures but rather in man. Moral goodness can only be achieved through the
grace of God.

- He is in agreement with the Greeks that man searches for happiness. However, he stated that
the real happiness can only be found in God. For God is LOVE and he created humans for them
to also love.

Rene Descartes
- He was considered as one of the Rationalist Philosophers in Europe which considered TRUTH
as a universal concept and REASON is superior to and independent of sensory experience.

Through math, he discovered that the human mind has to powers:

1. Intuition - It is the ability to apprehend direction of certain truths. It is basically one's gut
feeling.
2. Deduction - It is the power to discover what is not known by progressing in an orderly way
from what is already known.

- He believed that reasoning could produce absolute truths about nature, existence, morality
and God. And those truths that can be discovered are called PRIORI, which do not rely on some
experiences because they are innate in the human mind. Basically, these are truths that we
already know, but haven't experienced it yet.
- It is considered the soul/mind (also the self) as a substance that is separated from the body.
Based on this, he believed that all bodily processes are mechanical and that the body.
according to him, is like a machine that is controlled by the will and aided by the mind. This idea
was called The Mind-Body Problem or Cartesian Dualism. Basically, the mind and the body are
separated from each other, but are still connected in some ways in order for one to function
properly.

John Locke
- He believed that knowledge results from ideas produced a POSTERIORI or by objects that
were experienced.

The process of Posteriori has two forms:

1. Sensation - This is wherein objects are experienced through the senses.
2. Reflection - It is where by which the mind 'looks' at the objects that were experienced to
discover relationships that may exists between them.

- He contended that ideas are not innate but rather the mind at birth is a blank slate or TABULA
RASA
- "Nothing exis

Three Laws According to John Locke:

1. Law of Opinion - This is where actions that are praiseworthy are called virtues and those that
are not are called vice.
2. Civil Law - This is where right actions are enforced by people in authority.
3. Divine Law - These are set by God on the actions of man and is deemed to be the true law of
human behavior.

David Hume
- According to his analysis, the mind receives materials from the senses and calls it perceptions.

Two Types of Perceptions according to David Hume:

1. Impressions - It is the immediate sensations of external reality and are more vivid than the
ideas it produces.
2. Ideas - These are recollections of these impressions.
- For him, impressions and ideas together make up the content of the human mind.

He examined the pattern of thinking and formulated three principles on how ideas relate to one
another: (RCC)
1. The Principle of Resemblance
2. The Principle of Contiguity
3. The Principle of Cause and Effect

- Concluded that man does really have an idea of the so-called "SELF" because ideas rely on
sense impressions and people have no sense impression of a self.
- Believed that "SELF" is also a product of imagination.
- Stated that there is no such thing as 'personal identity' behind perceptions and feelings that
come and go. For him, there is no permanent/unchanging self.

Immanuel Kant
- Argued that the mind is not just a passive receiver of sense experience but rather actively
participates in knowing the objects experiences. it.
- Defined knowledge as a result of human understanding applied to sense experience.
- For him those bundles of 'sensory impressions' imply a unity of the self without which there
would be no knowledge of experience. Therefore, a self must exist or there could be no memory
or knowledge. The term for this experience of the self and its unity with objects is
TRANSCENDENTAL APPERCEPTION.

Sigmund Freud
- According to him, repressed thoughts and memories have enough psychic energy to impose
its control on the person's consciousness. Kept hidden and unexpressed. these repressed
memories resurface and are manifested as some form of psychopathology.
- He presented the topography of the mind.

3 Levels of the Mind:

1. Conscious
2. Preconscious/Subconscious
3. Unconscious

3 Components of the Mind:

1. Id - It is the structure that is primarily based on the pleasure (instinct) principle. It demands
immediate satisfaction and is not hindered by societal expectations.
2. Ego - It is the structure that is based on the reality principle. This mediates between the
impulses of Id and the restraints of the superego.
3. Superego - It is the last structure to develop and is primarily dependent on learning the
difference between right and wrong.

2 Kinds of Instincts:
1. Eros (Life Instinct) - It also called the libido and it includes urges necessary for survival like
thirst, hunger, and sex.
2. Thanatos (Death Instinct) - It is directed towards destruction in the form of aggression and
violence.
- His psychoanalysis sees man as a product of his past lodged within his subconscious.

Gilbert Ryle
- He contradicted the Cartesian Dualism or Mind-Body Problem. According to him, the category
mistake is how a non-material mental substance known as the "mind" can influence a physical
material body.
- His philosophical thought mentioned that man is endowed with free will.

- He also touched on the two types of knowledge:

1. Knowing-That - It refers to knowing the facts/information.
2. Knowing-How - It refers to using the facts in the performance of some skill or technical
abilities.

- If it is just Knowing-That, it is considered as Empty Intellectualism.

Patricia and Paul Churchland

- Paul Churchland was dissatisfied with the particular approach of the philosophers and instead
sought to guide scientific theorizing with philosophy and guide philosophy with scientific inquiry
- Patricia Churchland claimed that man's brain is responsible for the identity known as the
"SELF". The biochemical properties of the brain according to this philosophy of neuroscience
are really responsible for man's thoughts, feelings and behavior.
- For them, it seems that what and who the person is(how he makes decisions, controls
impulses and how he sees himself) is largely determined by his neurons, hormones and overall
genetic make-up.

Maurice Merleau-Ponty
- He developed the concept of body - subject and contended that perceptions occur
existentially. Thus, the consciousness, the world and the human body are all interconnected as
they mutually perceive the world.
- According to him, the world and the sense of self are emergent phenomena in the ongoing
process of man's becoming.

Module 2: The Self From the Perspective of Sociology

Sociology
- One of the disciplines in the social sciences which aims to discover the ways by which the
social surrounding/environment influences people's thoughts, feelings and behavior.

The Social Self

- The self is not an isolated entity. It is shaped, developed, and sustained through interactions
with others.
- As social beings, we build our identity in response to the social environment around us.
- Our behaviors, values, and sense of self evolve through these interactions.

The Role of Socialization in the Formation of the Self

• Socialization
- It is the process through which individuals learn and internalize the norms, values, and roles of
their culture and society.
- From early childhood, family, school, peer groups, and media contribute to shaping our
understanding of ourselves.
- Socialization helps us learn how to behave in various contexts and develop a sense of identity.

Norms - Are the rules and expectations in a society.

Sociological Perspective in the Construction of the Self

- Sociology emphasizes that the self is a social construct. Our self-concept is created through
social interactions.
- Social institutions, norms, and roles are key factors in shaping the individual.
- The self is not only a product of individual reflection but of social forces that shape our
behavior and attitudes.

Mead and the Social Self (Symbolic Interactionism)

• George Mead
- He developed the theory of Symbolic Interactionism
- It highlights how self-awareness develops through social interaction.
- The self is divided into two parts: The "I" (the spontaneous, active self), and the "Me" (the
reflective, socialized self).
- The 'l' represents the creative, unpredictable aspect of the self, while the 'Me' reflects societal
expectations and norms.
- Through interaction with others, individuals develop self- consciousness and an understanding
of their roles in society.

"ME"
- Is the acting body-subject
- Is the spontaneous response
- Gives the self the capacity to innovate
- Becomes part of the 'Me!

Role-Taking and Specialization

- Mead emphasized role-taking as a crucial part of self-development.
- By taking the role of others, individuals learn to understand their position within society and
how others perceive them.
- Through role-play and games, children gradually develop the capacity to see themselves from
the perspective of a generalized other.

Mead's Social Self Stages of Development

1. The Preparatory Stage
- Children's behavior are primarily based on imitation.
- Symbols are the basis of communication. Children become familiar with the symbols and use it
for interactions.

2. Play Stage
- Skills at knowing and understanding the symbols of
communication is important for this constitutes the
basis for socialization.
- Now children begin to role play and pretend to be other people.
- Role-taking in this stage is the process of mentally assuming the perspective of another
person to see how this person might behave or respond in a given situation (Schaefer, 2012).

3. The Game Stage

- The child is about 8 or 9 years of age.
- The child begins to consider several tasks and various types of relationships simultaneously.
- Begins to see not only his own perspective but at the same time the perspective of others
around him.
- Has the ability to respond not just to one but several members of his social environment.
- "Generalized other" is used to explain the behavior of the person when he
- Sees/considers other people in the course of his actions.

Erving Goffman and the Social Self

• Erving Goffman: The Self as a Performer
- In the Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (1959), Goffman introduced the concept of the self
as a performer.
- In social interactions, we perform roles based on the
expectations of the situation and the audience.
- We engage in 'impression management' to control how others perceive us, using both
conscious and unconscious cues.
- We 'perform' differently in various social contexts-sometimes fully believing in our roles, other
times adopting 'role distance' to detach ourselves from them.

Impression Management and Social Mask

- Social media is a modern example of how we curate our self- presentation to others, often
using 'masks' to manage perceptions.

The Interaction of Culture, Society and the Self

- Markus and Kitayama (1991) distinguish between independent and interdependent self-
construals, based on cultural orientations.
- Independent self-construal - Individuals define themselves by their internal attributes, such as
traits and values (common in individualistic cultures).
- Interdependent self-construal: Individuals define themselves through their relationships and
social roles (common in collectivist cultures).
- Culture plays a significant role in shaping how we perceive ourselves and relate to others.

Cultural Influences on The Self

- Culture and society deeply influence how individuals construct their sense of self.
- Cultural norms, values, and practices shape self-construal, emotions, motivation, and
behaviors.
- Selfhood is shaped by collective meanings and shared understanding within cultural contexts.
- In collectivist cultures, the self is often seen as connected to the community, whereas in
individualistic cultures, the focus is on autonomy and independence.

Intersubjectivity: Shared Meanings and The Self

- Intersubjectivity refers to the shared meanings and understandings constructed through social
interactions.
- The self is always embedded in cultural and social contexts where intersubjective meanings
are shared.

RECAP:
- The SELF is a dynamic, social construct, continuously shaped by interactions with others and
the broader cultural and societal contexts.
- Socialization, role-taking, impression management, and cultural norms all play significant roles
in the formation of the self.
- Understanding the social self helps us better appreciate how our identity evolves through
relationships, culture, and social expectations.

Module 3: The Self from the Perspective of Anthropological Self

Anthropology
- It is a field of the social sciences that focuses on the study of man.
- Does not only pertain to one aspect of man but rather on the totality of what it means to be
human.
- Looks into man's physical/biological characteristics, his social relationships and the influences
of his culture from the dawn of civilization up to the present.

Examples of Anthropology in Practice:

• Cultural Evolution - The Development of Agricultural Societies like the Banaue Rice Terraces
• Fiestas and Festival - Includes the Sinulog Festival
• Traditional Gender Roles - Includes "Nanay" and "Tatay" roles
• Economic System - Public Infrastructure System

The Fields of Anthropology

• Archaeology - It focuses on the past and how it may have contributed to the present ways of
how people conduct their lives.

• Biological Anthropology (Physical Anthropology)

- It focuses primarily on how the human body adapts to the different earth environments.
- It applies scientific and evolutionary methods.
- This field focuses on understanding the biological variations among humans, how we adapt to
evolving environments, and how we have evolved over time and continue to do so.

• Linguistic Anthropology - Study how the language and modes of communication changes over
time how if affects the way we all live.

• Cultural Anthropology
- It focuses in knowing what makes one group's manner of living particular to that group and
forms an essential part of the member's personal and social identity.
- Cultural Anthropology examines how the unique customs, practices, and beliefs of a particular
group contribute to the identity of its members and their social relationships.
- Examples include rice farming, hunting and gathering, traditional rituals, etc.

Culture - It is described as a group of people's way of life. It includes their behaviors, beliefs,
values, and symbols that they accept (usually unconsciously) that are socially transmitted
through communication and imitation from generation to generation.

Ways in which Culture can Manifest itself in People:

• Symbols - Are words, gestures, pictures or objects that have a recognized/accepted meaning
in a particular culture. It can be shared or copied by other cultures who find them also fitting for
their own culture.

➤ Word
Ex: "Mabuhay" - "Mabuhay" is a Filipino greeting meaning "long live" or "welcome." It is used to
express goodwill and hospitality.

➤ Objects
Ex: Jeepney - The Jeepney is a popular mode of public transportation in the Philippines, known
for its vibrant and colorful designs.

➤ Gesture
Ex: Mano - This traditional gesture shows reverence for elders and is commonly practiced
during greetings and family gatherings.

• Heroes
- Are persons from the past or present who have characteristics that are important in a culture.
They may be real or fictitious and are models for behavior.
- Examples include Jose Rizal, Superman, and our parents

• Rituals - Are activities (may be religious or social) participated in by a group of people for the
fulfillment of desired objectives and are considered to be socially essential.

• Values - These are considered to be the core of every culture. They are unconscious and can
neither be discussed nor be directly observed but can only be inferred from the way people act
and react to circumstances and situations. It involves human tendencies/preferences towards
good or bad, right or wrong.

Module 4: The Self from the Perspective of Psychology

Psychology
- Comes from two Greek words, "psyche" meaning mind and "logos", is to study.
- The science of mind (mental processes) and behavior.

William James (1842 - 1910)

- An American Philosopher and Psychologist.
- Professor of Psychology and Philosophy at Harvard University and was known for being a
great pragmatists.
- Also known for his Theory of the Self.

William James, in his studies of human thoughts concluded that thoughts have five
characteristics:
1. All human thoughts are owned by some personal self.
2. All thoughts are constantly changing or are never static.
3. There is a continuity of thoughts as its focus shifts from one object to another.
4. Thoughts deal with objects that are different from and independent of consciousness itself.
5. Consciousness can focus on particular objects and not others.

The “Me” and the “I”

• ME Self - It can be considered as a separate object or individual that the person refers to when
discussing or describing their personal experiences. The empirical Me.

• I Self
- The self that knows and recognizes who they are and what they have done.
- It is the Pure self or the Thinking self.

3 Components of Me Self:
1. Material Self - This includes your body, possessions, and any tangible aspects that you
identify with, representing your physical presence and belongings.

2. Social Self - This aspect encompasses how you are perceived in social contexts and the
roles you adopt in relationships, reflecting your identity in relation to others.

3. Spiritual Self - Your personal beliefs, values, and inner thoughts such as feeling a deep sense
of compassion or reflecting on your purpose in life.

Other Selves in Psychology:

1. Global and Differentiated Self
• Global Self
- Represents the overall value the person places upon himself. This affects how he values and
feels about himself.
- The product of all experiences that he had in the society which accounts for the kind of person
he presently is.

• Differentiated Self
- Theory made by an American Psychiatrist and Professor Murray Bowen (1913-1990).
- Affected by the presence of others, has the ability to separate feelings and thoughts.
- Enables the person to develop and sustain his unique identity. make his own choices and
accept responsibility for his behavior and still be able to stay emotionally connected with his
family and friends.
- There are 2 forces affecting the person: togetherness and individuality.

2. Real and Ideal Self-Concepts

• Real - Self Concept
- Refers to all information and perception the person has about himself.
- This is who he actually is and answers the question, "Who am I?".

• Ideal - Self Concept

- The model version the person has of himself.
- This is what the person aims for himself to be. It answers the question of who he wants to
become or "Who do I want to be?".

3. The Self-Discrepancy Theory of Higgins

- Higgins stated that people use internalized standards to which they compare themselves.
These are called SELF - GUIDES which provide directions for how the person should present
himself.
- When the self is found to be deviating /diverting from these guides, the result is SELF-
DISCREPANCY. SELF-DISCREPANCY may cause emotional discomfort to the individual and
can be manifested as guilt or worst as indifference.
4. Multiple and Unified Selves
• Multiple Selves Theory
- Suggests that there exists in the individual different aspects of the self. It makes sense that the
self is a whole made up of parts. These parts of the self may manifest themselves when
situations call for it.

• Unified Self/Being
- Essentially connected to consciousness, awareness and agency.
- Able to deal with and accept the complexities and the perceived unfairness that exist in life.

5. True and False Selves (D.W. Winnicott)

• True Self
- The self is seen as creative, spontaneously experiencing each day of their lives, appreciate
being alive, real, integrated and connected to the whole of existence.
- Characterized by a high level of awareness in the person of who he is, what he is capable of
and is not afraid to let others know his weaknesses and imperfections.
- Recognizes his strengths and accepts his limitations, enjoys winning and success and learns
from mistakes and failures.

Differences between Real Self and True Self

- Your real self is your literal real almost raw self.
- Your true self is your almost genuine self.

• False Self
- May be manifested as a form of defense. It lacks spontaneity, is dead and empty.
- It is the mask that hides the true person for fear of the pain of rejection and failure.
- Usually surfaces when the person is forced to comply with existing social norms and
standards.
- At times, it enables the person to form superficial but productive social relationships.
6. The Self as Proactive and Agentic
• The Social Cognitive Theory
- Suggested that human beings are proactive, self-regulating, self-reflective and self organizing.
- People have the ability to influence their own behavior which may lead to desired outcomes.
- In this theory, the person is seen as PROACTIVE and AGENTIC which means that he has the
capacity to exercise control over his life.

• Triadic Reciprocal Causation Paradigm

- Human beings are affected by the interaction among environmental events, behavior and
personal factors.

Features of Human Agency:

1. Intentionality - Refers to the actions performed by the person intentionally or with full
awareness of his behavior. This feature involves planning with awareness of the possible
consequences of actions.

2. Forethought - Refers to the person's anticipation of likely outcomes of his behavior. This
allows him to select from a repertoire of behaviors and determine which one will most likely lead
to a positive outcome.

3. Self-Reactiveness - It refers to the process in which the person is motivated and regulates his
behavior as he observes his progress in achieving his goals.

4. Self-Reflectiveness - It refers to the person looking inward and evaluating his motivations,
values, life goals and other people's effect on him.

Self Regulation
- Reactively attempts to minimize the discrepancies between what he has already accomplished
and what he still wants to achieve.
- Allows the person to set goals that are better and higher than the former, challenging his
capabilities and making him a wiser and self-actualized individual.

Module 4: The Eastern and Western Concepts of the Self

Individualistic Self - He is aware that he is not alone and that he exists with others in society but
sees himself as being capable of living his own life. The development of this self begins after
birth and is usually observed in the child rearing practices of parents in the West. (Independent
from Others)

Collective Self
- The identity of the individual is lost and does not exist except as a part of the group. Usually
the family and the society control how the group members should think, act and generally
conduct themselves in society. (Dependent on Others)
- It prioritizes group harmony.

Ecological Self
- Sees himself as a process that is undergoing development.
- The self here is seen as dynamic, different and unique in each individual and is constantly
exposed to an ever changing world.
- Human biological and environmental characteristics like race, gender, social status, education,
and culture are factors that influence self-development.
- Adapts to the environment.

The Self in Confucian Thought

Confucius (Kong Zhongni of China)
- His philosophy came to be known as humanistic social philosophy whose primary focus is on
human beings and the society he finds himself in.
- His philosophical concept is centered on the ren.
- Ren - It can be understood as human goodness. It involves feelings and thinking which serves
as the foundation of all human relationship. It further signifies the Chinese culture's emphasis on
feelings or the heart as the most important instead of the head in human nature.

- Li (propriety) - In order to guide human actions, rules of propriety should be followed, such
rules involve adherence to the rituals of the community.
- Xiao (filiality) - It is the virtue of reverence and respect for family.
- Yi (rightness) - It is the right way of behaving, unconditional and absolute.