UNIT-IV

OPTICAL, PRESSURE & TEMPERATURE

SENSORS
CONTENT
 Photo Conductive Cell
 Photo Voltaic
 Photo resistive
 LDR
 Fibre Optic sensors
 Pressure sensor
 Diaphragm
 Bellows
 Piezoelectric sensors
 Tactile sensors
CONTENT continued.,
 Temperature-IC sensors
 Thermistor
 RTD
 Thermocouple
 Acoustic sensors
 Flow measurement sensor
 Level measurement sensor
 Radiation sensors
 Smart sensors
 Film sensor
 MEMS and Nano Sensors
 Laser sensors
 FIBRE OPTIC SENSORS (Fibre Optic Transducers)
In fiber optic transducers, optical fiber is used as sensing
element which can transmit optical (light) signals from remote
place to destination place where the processing of signals take
place. Optical fiber is mainly preferred because of signals take
place, its small size and less weight.
Advantages
1. Do not require any electrical power at the remote place of
transmission.
2. Immunity to electromagnetic interference and non-conduction
of electricity.
Principle of Fibre Optic Transmission
1. TIR (Total Internal Reflection)
It states that all the light striking a boundary between two
media will be totally reflected. There is no less in light energy
across the boundary.
Two conditions to be satisfied for the principle of TIR to take place are:
i. The glass around the centre of the fiber (core) should has higher refractive index
(n1) than that of the material (cladding) surrounding the fibre(n2).
ii) The light should be incident at an angle of Φ which will be greater than
the critical angle θc.

Total Internal Reflection of Light Waves

Φ< θc Φ= θc Φ>θc
Reflection, refraction and total internal reflection of light waves are
shown in figure.
At the condition of θ< θC , the optical ray will split.
Some of the ray will be reflected off the boundary and some
of them will be refracted as it passes through.
At the conditon of θ> θC , the entire ray gets reflected from
the boundary. None passes through this is called total internal
reflection.

Types of Fiber Optic Sensors (2 types)

1. Instrinsic type sensor
Based on the measurement of variable like pressure,
temperature, level, etc., the properties of the fibre will be
varied. Here the optical fibre itself can act as a sensing
material.
 2. Extrinsic type sensor
• the optical sensor acts as a guide for the light from the source
to the sensing device and vice-versa. Due to the interaction at
the sensing side has attained a change in its parameters.

1. Active
'I'he fibre is exposed to the energy source that affects the measurand
and a consequent change in the optical propagation in the fibre is
detected and related to the measurand.
2. Passive
Light transmitted through a fibre, called input fibre, is first modulated
by a conventional optical sensor and this intensity-modulated light is'
propagated through a second fibre called the output fibre and
detected and corrected with the measurand.
Applications of Fiber Optic Transducer
• Used for the measurement of many variables such as
temperature, pressure,
• liquid level, flow, etc.,
• (optical, radiation happens to be the energy required for the
respective
• measurement with fiber as the sensing source as well as the
medium).
Fibre Optic Transducer for Temperature Measurement
• He - Ne laser is used as light source and an interferometer is
used as detector. Also, there are two number of beam splitters
and two numbers of mirrors used in the arrangement.
• Among the two identical fibers, one is kept in the temperature
path, called as measurement path fiber and another is not
exposed to temperature, called reference path fiber.
Fiber Optic Transducer for Liquid Level Measurement
 Usually, light propagates through a fibre by total internal
reflection with appropriate cladding or even without that, if the
light incidence angle is properly chosen.
 This is because the refractive index air is such, with respect to
that of the fibre, that no refraction can take place.
 If, however, the fibre is placed in a liquid medium of a different
refractive index, it is possible that light refracts' into the liquid
and total internal -reflection inside the fibre stops, stopping light
propagation 'in it..
• If the optical fiber is placed in a liquid tank whose liquid level
is to be measured, the light gets refracted into the liquid and
the total internal reflection inside the optical fiber will be
stopped which further steps the light propagation inside the
fiber.
• The bottom end of the fibre is shaped like a prism so that-with
large difference in refractive indices of the fibre and the. medium
like air, there is internal .reflection and the light travels to be
detected
Fiber Optic Transducer for Fluid Flow Measurement
• Fluid flow rate has been sensed by an optical fibre mounted
transversely in a pipeline through which it flows.
• Because of the fibre, mounted across the flow, vortex shedding
occurs in the channel and the fibre vibrates', which in turn,
causes phase modulation' of the optical carrier wave
propagating through the fibre.
 The vibration frequency is' proportional to the
flow, rate.
 Using-multi node fibres of core diameter 0.2 -
0.3mm. and special detecting- techniques,
flow rates over range of 0.2 - 3 m/s can be
measured.

 The fibre kept under tension by a tension

adjusting system and a fibre clamp. .
 Flexible 'fillers' are often used for, small
adjustment of tension
 Fiber Optic Transducer for Acoustic
Pressure Measurement

• Multimode fibres can be utilized for the

measurement of acoustic pressure based on the
micro bending effect.
• In this arrangement multimode optical fibre is placed in two
corrugated plates in order to develop the transducer
arrangement.
• Whenever an acoustic pressure which is to be measured is
applied in top portion, as shown in, it causes micro bending
in the fibre.
• Due to this, more amount of light transmission will be lost
and the photo detector will produce an output signal of less
intensity.
• The amount of intensity of output signal is an indication of
the applied pressure for which the calibration of pressure /
force in terms of magnitude of detected light can be made.
PRESSURE
• It is one of the most important measurements made in industry
especially in continuous process industries such as chemical
processing and manufacturing.
• The principles used in measurement of pressure are also applied
in the measurement of temperature, flow and liquid level.
• Fluid pressure is on account of exchange of momentum between
the molecules of the fluid and a container wall.
Static and Dynamic Pressures
• When a fluid is in equilibrium, the pressure at a point is identical
in all directions and is independent of orientation. This is called
static pressure.
Dynamic Pressure
• When pressure gradients occur within a continuum of pressure,
the attempt to restore equilibrium results in fluid flow from
regions of higher pressure to regions of lower pressure. In this
case the pressures are no longer independent of direction and
are called dynamic pressures.
Velocity and Impact Pressures
• Pressure components of different nature exist in a flowing fluid.
Eg., in case of a small tube or probe for sampling, it is found that
the results depend upon how the tube is shown in figure.
• It senses a total or stagnation pressure. If the tube or probe is
oriented as shown in figure. the results are different and is
called static pressure.
Types of Pressure Measurement Devices
 Mechanical Instruments
• Pressure can be easily transduced to force by allowing it to act
on a known area. Therefore, basic methods of measuring force
and pressure are essentially the same except for the pressures in
high Vaccum region.
• Therefore these instruments may be classified into two groups.
• The first group includes those instruments in which pressure
measurement is made by balancing the unknown force
produced by pressure under measurement against a known
force.
• Instruments using this principle include manometers, piston
gauges and ring and bell type of gauges.
• The second group includes those instruments which employ the
balancing the unknown force through a force produced on a
known area due to stress in an elastic medium.
• This group employs quantitative deformation of an elastic
member for measurement of pressure.
• The elastic members are bourdon tube, bellows and
diaphragms.
 Electromechanical Instruments
• These instruments generally employ mechanical means for
detecting pressure and electrical means for indicating or
recording pressure.
• Electromechanical instruments are very well suitable for
dynamic measurements as they have an excellent frequency
response characteristics.
 Electronic Instruments
• These pressure measuring instruments normally depends on
some physical change that can be detected and indicated or
recorded through electronic means.
• These instruments are used for vacuum measurements
DIAPHRAGM
• The pressure to be measured is applied to the diaphragm,
causing it to deflect, the deflection being proportional to the
applied pressure.
• The movement of the diaphragm depends on its thickness and
diameter.
Single Diaphragm Elements
Three Diaphragm Elements
• A diaphragm element may consist of one capsule or two or more
capsules connected together with each capsule deflecting on the
application of pressure.
• The total deflection is the sum of the deflections of individual
capsules.
BELLOWS
• These parts are formed or joined in such a manner that they are
expanded or contracted axially by changes in pressure.
• The metals used in the construction of bellows must be thin
enough to be flexible, ductile enough for reasonably easy
fabrication and have a high resistance to fatigue failure.
• Materials commonly used are brass, bronze, beryllium, copper,
alloys of nickel and copper, steel.
Spring Loaded Bellows
• Normally a bellow has the ability to move over a greater
distance than required in a pressure application and therefore to
give it maximum life and to have better accuracy, its movement
is generally opposed by a calibrated spring so that only a part of
the maximum stoke is used.
Operations of Bellows
• The bellows on the low pressure side to expand. This continues
till the force on the span sparing equals the difference between
the forces acting on the two bellows.
• The rate of flow is controlled by the pulsation damper.
• The span of the element is controlled by the span ring used.
Output motion is transmitted by a pressure tight torque tube.
• Liquids having low - coefficient of thermal expansion are used in
differential pressure gauges
• The liquid may be ethylene glycol or water.
• A temperature compensating bellows is placed in the bellows on
the high pressure side.
• This bellows adjusts the capacity of the bellows on high pressure
side to change of volume of the filling liquid resulting from any
change in ambient temperature.
PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER
• Piezoelectric transducers produce an emf when they are
deformed by a displacement.
• The pressure to be measured is converted into a displacement
through use of force summing devices thereby causing a
deformation of piezoelectric crystal and consequently producing
an output emf.
• The output emf, is therefore an indicative of the pressure
applied.
• Quartz is the most commonly used crystal for piezoelectric
transducers.
• Synthetic crystals have been developed that produce the same
effect as the natural crystals and they generally have higher
sensitivities than those produced by natural crystals.
• Under static conditions the emf produced drops off, thereby
producing an error.
• This characteristic of piezoelectric transducers limits their use
only for dynamic measurements. Therefore, as pressure devices,
they are most useful where pressure changes quickly.
Piezoelectric Transducer for Tactile Sensing Piezoelectric Effect
• When a piezoelectric material is subjected to stress or
deformation, emf will be produced and this is called
piezoelectric effect.
• if the generation of emf is in the same direction of applied
stress, it is said to be longitudinal piezoelectric effect.
• If emf is produced in the direction perpendicular to the applied
stress, it is said to be transversal effect.
Applications

Advantages
Disadvantage
THERMISTORS
• Thermistor is a contraction of a term “thermal resistors”.
Thermistor are generally composed of semi conductor materials.
Construction of Thermistor
• Thermistor are composed of sintered mixture of metallic oxides
such as manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron and uranium.
They are available in variety of sizes and shapes.
• The thermistor may be in form of beads, rods and discs.
Resistance - Temperature Characteristics of Thermistor
• The mathematical expression for the relationship between the
resistance of a thermistor and absolute temperature of
thermistor is
Voltage - Current and Current - Time Characteristics of
Thermistor.
Voltage - Current Characteristics
Current - time characteristics
Applications of Thermistor
 Measurement of Temperature
 Control of Temperature
 Temperature Compensation

Advantages
Disadvantage
RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE
DETECTOR
 Thermocouple
• Thermocouple works on the fact that when a junction
of dissimilar metals heated, it produces an electric
potential related to temperature As per Thomas Seebeck
(1821),
• when two wires composed of dissimilar metals are
joined at both ends and one of the ends is heated, then
there is a continuous current which flows in the
thermoelectric circuit
• The net open circuit voltage (the Seebeck voltage) is a
function of junction temperature and composition of
two metals
 Applications of Thermocouples
• To monitor temperatures and chemistry
throughout the steel making process
• Testing temperatures associated with process
plants e.g. chemical production and petroleum
refineries
• Testing of heating appliance safety
LEVEL MEASUREMENT
• The main objective is to ascertain the quantity of the liquid held
by the container.
Methods used to determine the level
• Level determination by measuring hydrostatic or pneumatic
pressure.
• Level determination by measuring differential pressure
• Level determination by measuring the movement of a float.
• Level determination by electric strain gauge measurements
• Level determination by radiation absorption
• Level determination by heat transfer.
Float Type Level Indication
• Different types of float level devices are available to measure
the level of the liquid in either closed tanks or open tanks.
Float Level Switch Construction and Working
• The most known and simple level switch consists of a float which
is mounted on a movable arm and magnetically coupled to a
micro switch (outside the process).
Float/Rope Method
• It consists of a float, a small cable, two pulleys and a counter
weight which is suspended on the outside of the open tank. A
scale is mounted on the outside of the tank and the level of the
tank contents is indicated by the portion of the weight along the
scale.
• This arrangement is generally not suitable for process
applications.
• In view of the reading and accuracy, the current industrial
systems using the float method are rather fine examples. They
are very accurate level measuring systems for applications such
as very large storage tanks.
 Radiation Sensors
Particle detectors, also called radiation detectors or
sensors, are instruments designed for the detection
and measurement of subatomic particles such as those
emitted by radioactive materials, produced by particle
accelerators or observed in cosmic rays.
•There are different type of detectors which are used :
1.Geiger counter
2.Scintillation detector
3.Semiconductor detectors and etc.
 Working Principle
• The counter consists of a tube filled with an inert gas that becomes
conductive of electricity when it is impacted by a high-energy
particle.
• When a Geiger counter is exposed to ionizing radiation, the particles
penetrate the tube and collide with the gas, releasing more electrons.
• Positive ions exit the tube and the negatively charged electrons
become attracted to a high-voltage middle wire.
• When the number of electrons that build up around the wire reaches
a threshold, it creates an electric current.
• This causes the temporary closing of a switch and generates an
electric pulse that is registered on a meter, either acoustically as a
click that increases in intensity as the ionizing radiation increases, or
visually as the motion of a needle pointer.
A scintillation counter basically consists of
1. A scintillator,
2. A photomultiple that converts light flashes into electrical pulses
3. The associated electronic circuits consisting of amplifier pulse
shaper, scaler, discriminator and so on.
Working Principle of Semiconductor
detectors

• In semiconductor detectors, ionizing radiation is

measured by the number of charge carriers set free in
the detector material which is arranged between two
electrodes, by the radiation.
• Ionizing radiation produces free electrons and holes.
The number of electron-hole pairs is proportional to the
energy of the radiation to the semiconductor.
• As a result, a number of electrons are transferred from
the valence band to the conduction band, and an equal
number of holes are created in the valence band.
 Advantage

Advantages of semiconductor as a detecting

medium is that they have much greater density
than for a gas.
Reduced ionisation energy.
Geiger counters can can detect very low levels
of radiation -a single particle can be detected.
 Disadvantages

•The output pulse from a Geiger-Müller tube is

always the same magnitude regardless of the
energy of the incident radiation, the tube cannot
differentiate between radiation types.
•Inability to measure high radiation rates due to
the "dead time" of the tube.
•low detection efficiency for high-energy in
semiconductor detectors.
 Applications

1.Flood and water level monitoring system

2.Enviromental Monitoring system
3.Traffic Monitoring and controlling system
4.Energy savining artificial lighting
5.Remote system monitoring and equipment
fault diagnostics
6.Industrial Application
 SMART SENSORS (or) SMART TRANSDUCERS

• A ‘SMART’ transducer is expanded as “sensing, monitoring

and remote transmission” transducer.
• It can be either analog type or digital type which can be
combined with a processing unit and a communication
interface.
• These sensors can provide an electrical output. When they
combined with suitable interfacing devices, these sensors are
also called intelligent sensors.
• It can be defined as a microprocessor based sensor which can
perform one or more number of functions like logical
functions, decision making, two - eay communications, etc.,
• It can be simply expressed as

sensors + suitable interfacing circuits = smart sensors.

Smart sensors are different from conventional type sensors due to
their special functions such as ranging, calibration communication
with other devices, etc.,
Features of Smart Sensors:
1. Automatic ranging
2. Auto calibration of data through an in - built system
3. Automatic data acquisition system and storage of data in local
memory of the field device.
4. Auto linearization of non - linear functions.
5. Auto correction of offsets, time and temperature drifts.
6. Self tuning control algorithms
7. Easy communication through serial bus.
Need to Adopt Smart Sensors:

To utilize the following benefits, it is essential to adopt smart

sensors in a control systems.
 No Need of Bulk Cables and Connectors
 Digital Communication
 Enhanced Features
 Reliability
 Higher SNR
 Improved Characteristics
Architecture of a Smart Sensor

Fig: Block diagram of a smart sensor

Architecture of Smart Sensor
 NANO SENSORS
• Nano sensors are used to sense the biological, chemical or any physical
information which are to be conveyed as nano particles to the macroscopic
world.
• They have the potential to identify particular cell or parts of the body which
is to observed. They can identify the changes in certain cells, in case of
diagnosing cancerous condition, based on the change in volume,
concentration, pressure, temperature, velocity, magnetic forces, etc.,
• This will be helpful for drug delivery and monitoring of different stages of
diseases at specific part of the body. It is also possible to detect the changes
happened outside body and to transfer these variations via nano robots which
are inserted within the body.
Advantage of Nano Sensors
1. Smaller in size 2. Minimum power consumption 3. Maximum sensitivity
4. Maximum specificity 5. Self diagnostics 6. Reliability 7. Easy mobility
 Methods of Manufacturing of Nano Sensors
Top-Down Lithography

Fig: Pattern design by mask Fig: Pattern masking

Deposition of Poly Silicon Layer and Development of Pores

Opening of Pores
 Film Sensor
 Basically, such sensors are produced by film deposition of different thicknesses
on appropriate substrates.
 The deposition techniques used are different for the thick and thin film sensors.
 Sensors produced through these techniques have varying electrical and mechanical
properties while a variable is being sensed.

THICK FILM SENSORS

 Thick film process had been in use for producing capacitor, resistor and conductors for
sensor development.
 The processing of a sensor can be expressed schematically

Step 1 : Selection and preparation of a substrate

Step 2 : Preparation of the initial coating material in paste or paint form.
Step 3 : Pasting or painting the substrate by the coating material or
screen printing it.
Step 4 : Firing the sample produced in step 3 in oxidising atmosphere at
a programmed temperature format.
Thin Film Sensor
Plasma enhanced chemical vapor
deposition
Metallo-organic deposition (MOD)
FEATURES:
•High mechno-electrical coefficiency in planar , thickness and
hydrostatic modes.
•Low mechanical and acoustic impedance.
•High resistance to moisture.
•Plaint , flexible , tough.

APPLICATION:
•Vibration sensor and motion detectors.
•Low weight accelerometers.
•Pressure or force sensors.
•Keyboards , keypads and touch pads.
MICRO ELECTRO MECHANICAL
SYSTEMS (MEMS)
 Advantages of MEMS

Due to its miniaturized nature,

1. Smaller size
2. Low power consumption
3. Sensitivity to input variations
4. Inexpensive
5. Possibility of mass production
6. Less invasive than conventional devices
 Material Used for MEMS

The following are the materials used in the

manufacturing of MEMS sensors
 Silicon
Ga AS
Polymers
Metals
Ceramics
Three distinct micromanufacturing techniques
will be presented:
● Bulk micromanufacturing
● Surface micromachining
● The LIGA process
 Laser Sensor (Laser Doppler Anemometry [LDA])
• The concept of a Doppler shift is familiar phenomena.
• The faster the moving source of sound, the greater the shift in
frequency.
• This effect is also observed with light.
• When light is reflected from a moving object, the frequency of
the scattered light is shifted by an amount proportional to the
speed of the object.
• It is possible to estimate the speed by observing the frequency
shift. This is the basis for LDA.
• A flow is seeded with small, neutrally buoyant particles that
scatter light.
• The particles are illuminated by a known frequency of laser light.
• The scattered light is detected by a photomultiplier tube (PMT),
an instrument that generates a current in proportion to
absorbed photon energy, and then amplifies that current.
• The difference between the incident and scattered light
frequencies is called the Doppler shift.
 Schematic of LDA or LDV

2q
df=l0/2sinq
Fringe Pattern
 Principle of Operation
• The dual-beam approach is the most common optical arrangement used for
LDV systems for flow measurement applications.
• The transmitting optics include an optical element to split the original laser
beam into two parallel beams and a lens system to focus and cross the two
beams.
• The intersection region of the two beams becomes the measuring region.
• The receiving optics collect a portion of the light scattered by the particles,
in the fluid stream, passing through the beam-crossing region and direct this
light to a photodetector, which converts the scattered light intensity to an
analog electrical signal.
• The frequency of this signal is proportional to the velocity of the particle.
• A signal processor extracts the frequency information from the
photodetector output and provides this as a digital number corresponding to
the instantaneous velocity of the particle.
• The data processing system obtains the detailed flow properties from these
instantaneous velocity measurements.
df=l0/2sinq
Vx
fd 
df
Advantages LDA (Laser Doppler Anemometer)
1. This instrument measures the velocity directly rather than by inference from
pressure as in the case of pitot tube or co - efficient of heat transfer as in the
case of hot wire anemometer.
2. No physical object is inserted into the flow and therefore the flow remains
undisturbed by the measurement.
3. Volume of sensing part can be very small.
4. The instrument has a high frequency response which is of the order of MHz.
5. It has very high accuracy which may be as high as ± 0.2%
6. This can be used measurements of flows of both liquids and gases.

Disadvantages of LDA
1. It involves the use of transparent channels
2. There is used for tracer particles for scattering of light beam. Therefore,
the method cannot be used for clean flows.
3. The instrument has a high cost and high degree of complexity.
Applications of LDA
1. Investigation of boundary layers and shock wave interaction
phenomenon for both laminar and turbulent flows.
2. Determination of three dimensional wing tip vortices near tips of wings
of aircrafts.
3. Measurement of flow between blades of turbine
4. Combution and flame phenomena in gas turbines and jet propulsion
systems
5. Measurement of blood flows.
6. Remote sensing of wind velocities.
• In general, tactile sensors are used to sense the contact of fingertips of a
robot with an object
• They are also used in manufacturing of ‘touch display’ screens of visual
display units (VDUs) of CNC machine tools
• the construction of piezo-electric polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) based
tactile sensor
• It has two PVDF layers separated by a soft film which transmits the
vibrations. An alternating current is applied to lower PVDF layer which
generates vibrations due to reverse piezoelectric effect.
• These vibrations are transmitted to the upper PVDF layer via soft film.
These vibrations cause alternating voltage across the upper PVDF layer
• pressure is applied on the upper PVDF layer the vibrations gets affected
and the output voltage changes
Flow Measurement
Orifice Plate
Working Principle
Advantage

Disadvantage
 PHOTO VOLTAIC CELL
 They generate a voltage which is proportional to EM radiation
intensity. They are called photo voltaic cells because of their
voltage generating characteristics.
 They, in fact, convert the EM energy into electrical energy.
They are passive transducers i.e., they do not need an external
source to power them.
 Photons striking the cell pass through the thin P - doped
upper layer and are absorbed by electrons and holes.
 The depletion zone potential of the PN junction then
separates these conduction holes and electrons causing a
difference of potential to develop across the junction.
 Photo Resistive
• In photo resistors, based on the incident light, an electron is
excited in the conduction band rather than being left as free
electron from the lattice structure of the photo conducting
material.
 When there is no incident light falls on the photo conductive
surface, the resistance is observed as high called dark
resistance.
 Depending on the intensity of the incident light, there will be
an increase in current which in turn decreases the resistance.
The sensitivity of the photo resistor is expressed as
Since photo resistor changes its resistance when there is a change in
temperature even if the incident light is maintained constant, it is not
recommended for analog applications.