Crystalline Chemical Industry (Pvt) Ltd.

Internship Report

Submitted to: M Aftab sab

Submitted by: Saad Ghafoor
Roll No : MCET51F21R014
Session : 2021-2025
Semester : 7th
Program : BS Mechanical Engineering & Technology

1
 Chapter 1

(Crystalline Chemical Industry)

1.1Introduction

The factory is located in Punjab province of Pakistan. The plant is based on the most modern
French technology (interis) equipped with dcs controls. Daily production is 100000 liters of
super fine ethyl alcohol. The alcohol is produced from cane sugar molasses. The quality of the
product has been declared of international standards by French quality experts.

2
 Chapter 2

2.1Introduction

A valve is a device that regulates, directs or controls the flow of a fluid (gases, liquids, fluidized
solids, or slurries) by opening, closing, or partially obstructing various passageways. Valves are
technically pipe fittings, but are usually discussed as a separate category. In an open valve, fluid
flows in a direction from higher pressure to lower pressure.
Valves are used in a variety of contexts, including industrial, military, commercial,
residential, and transport. The industries in which the majority of valves are used are oil and gas,
power generation, mining, water reticulation, sewerage and chemical manufacturing.
In daily life, most noticeable are plumbing valves, such as taps for tap water. Other
familiar examples include gas control valves on cookers, small valves fitted to washing machines
and dishwashers, safety devices fitted to hot water systems, and valves in car engines. In nature,
veins acting as valves are controlling the blood circulation; heart valves control the flow of blood
in the chambers of the heart and maintain the correct pumping action.
Valves play a vital role in industrial applications ranging from transportation of drinking
water to control of ignition in a rocket engine.
Valves may be operated manually, either by a handle, lever or pedal. Valves may also be
automatic, driven by changes in pressure, temperature, or flow. These changes may act upon a
diaphragm or a piston which in turn activates the valve, examples of this type of valve found
commonly are safety valves fitted to hot water systems or boilers.

Fig:2.1

2.2 Gate Valve:

A gate valve, also known as a sluice valve, is a valve that opens by lifting a round or
rectangular gate/wedge out of the path of the fluid. The distinct feature of a gate valve

3
 is the sealing surfaces between the gate and seats are planar, so gate valves are often
used when a straight-line flow of fluid and minimum restriction is desired. The gate
faces can form a wedge shape or they can be parallel. Typical gate valves should
never be used for regulating flow, unless they are specifically designed for that
purpose. On opening the gate valve, the flow path is enlarged in a highly nonlinear
manner with respect to percent of opening. This means that flow rate does not change
evenly with stem travel. Also, a partially open gate disk tends to vibrate from the
fluid flow. Most of the flow change occurs near shutoff with a relatively high fluid
velocity causing disk and seat wear and eventual leakage if used to regulate flow.
Typical gate valves are designed to be fully opened or closed. When fully open, the
typical gate valve has no obstruction in the flow path, resulting in very
low friction loss.

Gate valves are characterized as having either a rising or a nonrising stem. Rising
stems provide a visual indication of valve position because the stem is attached to the
gate such that the gate and stem rise and lower together as the valve is operated.
Nonrising stem valves may have a pointer threaded onto the upper end of the stem to
indicate valve position, since the gate travels up or down the stem on the threads
without raising or lowering the stem. Nonrising stems are used underground or where
vertical space is limited.

Fig:2.2
2.3Butterfly Valve:

A butterfly valve is a valve which can be used for isolating or regulating flow. The
closing mechanism takes the form of a disk. Operation is similar to that of a ball valve,
which allows for quick shut off. Butterfly valves are generally favored because they are
lower in cost to other valve designs as well as being lighter in weight, meaning less
support is required. The disc is positioned in the center of the pipe, passing through the
disc is a rod connected to an actuator on the outside of the valve. Rotating
the actuator turns the disc either parallel or perpendicular to the flow. Unlike a ball valve,

4
 the disc is always present within the flow; therefore a pressure drop is always induced in
the flow, regardless of valve position.

A butterfly valve is from a family of valves called quarter-turn valves. The "butterfly" is
a metal disc mounted on a rod. When the valve is closed, the disc is turned so that it
completely blocks off the passageway. When the valve is fully open, the disc is rotated a
quarter turn so that it allows an almost unrestricted passage of the fluid. The valve may
also be opened incrementally to throttle flow.

There are different kinds of butterfly valves, each adapted for different pressures and
different usage. The resilient butterfly valve, which uses the flexibility of rubber, has the
lowest pressure rating. The high performance butterfly valve, used in slightly higher-
pressure systems, features a slight offset in the way the disc is positioned, which
increases the valve's sealing ability and decreases its tendency to wear. The valve best
suited for high-pressure systems is the triple offset butterfly valve, which makes use of a
metal seat, and is therefore able to withstand a greater amount of pressure.

Fig:2.3.1 Fig:2.3.2
2.4Ball Valve:
A ball valve is a valve with a spherical disc, the part of the valve which controls the flow
through it. The sphere has a hole, or port, through the middle so that when the port is in
line with both ends of the valve, flow will occur. When the valve is closed, the hole is
perpendicular to the ends of the valve, and flow is blocked. The handle or lever will be in
line with the port position letting you "see" the valve's position. The ball valve, along
with the butterfly valve and plug valve, are part of the family of quarter turn valves.
Ball valves are durable and usually work to achieve perfect shutoff even after years of
disuse. They are therefore an excellent choice for shutoff applications (and are often
preferred to globe valves and gate valves for this purpose). They do not offer the fine
control that may be necessary in throttling applications but are sometimes used for this
purpose.
Ball valves are used extensively in industrial applications because they are very versatile,
supporting pressures up to 1000 bars and temperatures up to 200°C. Sizes typically range
from 0.5 cm to 30 cm. They are easy to repair and operate.

5
 The body of ball valves may be made of metal, plastic or metal with a ceramic center.
The ball is often chrome plated to make it more durable.

Fig:2.4

2.5Globe Valve:
A globe valve is a type of valve used for regulating flow in a pipeline, consisting of a
movable disk-type element and a stationary ring seat in a generally spherical body.

Globe valves are named for their spherical body shape with the two halves of
the body being separated by an internal baffle. This has an opening that forms a seat onto
which a movable plug can be screwed in to close (or shut) the valve. The plug is also
called a disc or disk. In globe valves, the plug is connected to a stem which is operated by
screw action in manual valves. Typically, automated valves use sliding stems. Automated
globe valves have a smooth stem rather than threaded and are opened and closed by
an actuator assembly. When a globe valve is manually operated, the stem is turned by
a hand wheel.

Although globe valves in the past had the spherical bodies which gave them their name,
many modern globe valves do not have much of a spherical shape. However, the
term globe valve is still often used for valves that have such an internal mechanism.
In plumbing, valves with such a mechanism are also often called stop valves since they
don't have the global appearance, but the term stop valve may refer to valves which are
used to stop flow even when they have other mechanisms or designs.

6
 Fig:2.5
2.6Non Return Valve (NRV):

A check valve, clack valve, non-return valve or one-way valve is a mechanical device,
a valve, which normally allows fluid (liquid or gas) to flow through it in only one
direction.

Check valves are two-port valves, meaning they have two openings in the body, one for
fluid to enter and the other for fluid to leave. There are various types of check valves used
in a wide variety of applications. Check valves are often part of common household
items. Although they are available in a wide range of sizes and costs, check valves
generally are very small, simple, and/or inexpensive. Check valves work automatically
and most are not controlled by a person or any external control; accordingly, most do not
have any valve handle or stem. The bodies (external shells) of most check valves are
made of plastic or metal.

An important concept in check valves is the cracking pressure which is the minimum
upstream pressure at which the valve will operate. Typically the check valve is designed
for and can therefore be specified for a specific cracking pressure.

Fig:2.6

7
 Chapter#3
Pumps

3.1Introduction

A pump is a device used to move fluids, such as liquids, gases or slurries.

A pump displaces a volume by physical or mechanical action. Pumps fall into three major
groups: direct lift, displacement, and gravity pumps. Their names describe the method for
moving a fluid.

A positive displacement pump causes a fluid to move by trapping a fixed amount of it then
forcing (displacing) that trapped volume into the discharge pipe.

OR
A positive displacement pump has an expanding cavity on the suction side and a decreasing
cavity on the discharge side. Liquid flows into the pump as the cavity on the suction side
expands and the liquid flows out of the discharge as the cavity collapses. The volume is constant
given each cycle of operation

3.2Gear pump

This uses two meshed gears rotating in a closely fitted casing. Fluid is pumped around the outer
periphery by being trapped in the tooth spaces. It does not travel back on the meshed part, since
the teeth mesh closely in the centre. Widely used on car engine oil pumps. it is also used in
various hydraulic power packs.

3.3 Centrifugal pump

A centrifugal pump is a rotodynamic pump that uses a rotating impeller to increase the pressure
and flow rate of a fluid. Centrifugal pumps are the most common type of pump used to move
liquids through a piping system. The fluid enters the pump impeller along or near to the rotating
axis and is accelerated by the impeller, flowing radially outward or axially into a diffuser or
volute chamber, from where it exits into the downstream piping system. Centrifugal pumps are
typically used for large discharge through smaller heads.

Centrifugal pumps are most often associated with the radial flow type. However, the term
"centrifugal pump" can be used to describe all impeller type rotodynamic pumps including the
radial, axial and mixed flow variations.

8
3.4 Radial flow pumps

Often simply referred to as centrifugal pumps. The fluid enters along the axial plane, is
accelerated by the impeller and exits at right angles to the shaft (radially). Radial flow pumps
operate at higher pressures and lower flow rates than axial and mixed flow pumps.

3.5 Axial flow pumps

Axial flow pumps differ from radial flow in that the fluid enters and exits along the same
direction parallel to the rotating shaft. The fluid is not accelerated but instead "lifted" by the
action of the impeller. They may be likened to a propeller spinning in a length of tube. Axial
flow pumps operate at much lower pressures and higher flow rates than radial flow pumps.

3.6 Mixed flow pumps

Mixed flow pumps, as the name suggests, function as a compromise between radial and axial
flow pumps, the fluid experiences both radial acceleration and lift and exits the impeller
somewhere between 0–90 degrees from the axial direction. As a consequence mixed flow pumps
operate at higher pressures than axial flow pumps while delivering higher discharges than radial
flow pumps. The exit angle of the flow dictates the pressure head-discharge characteristic in
relation to radial and mixed flow.

3.7 Gear Pumps:

A gear pump uses the meshing of gears to pump fluid by displacement. They are one of the most
common types of pumps for hydraulic fluid power applications. Gear pumps are also widely
used in chemical installations to pump fluid with a certain viscosity. There are two main
variations; external gear pumps which use two external spur gears, and internal gear
pumps which use an external and an internal spur gear. Gear pumps are positive
displacement (or fixed displacement), meaning they pump a constant amount of fluid for each
revolution. Some gear pumps are designed to function as either a motor or a pump.

As the gears rotate they separate on the intake side of the pump, creating a void and suction
which is filled by fluid. The fluid is carried by the gears to the discharge side of the pump, where
the meshing of the gears displaces the fluid. The mechanical clearances are small— in the order
of 10 μm. The tight clearances, along with the speed of rotation, effectively prevent the fluid
from leaking backwards.

The rigid design of the gears and houses allow for very high pressures and the ability to pump
highly viscous fluids.

3.8 Centrifugal Pump:

9
A centrifugal pump is a rotodynamic pump that uses a rotating impeller to create flow by the
addition of energy to a fluid. Centrifugal pumps are commonly used to move liquids through
piping. The fluid enters the pump impeller along or near to the rotating axis and is accelerated by
the impeller, flowing radially outward into a diffuser or volute chamber (casing), from where it
exits into the downstream piping. Centrifugal pumps are used for large discharge through smaller
heads.

Like most pumps, a centrifugal pump converts mechanical energy from a motor to energy of a
moving fluid; some of the energy goes into kinetic energy of fluid motion, and some into
potential energy, represented by a fluid pressure or by lifting the fluid against gravity to a higher
level.

The transfer of energy from the mechanical rotation of the impeller to the motion and pressure of
the fluid is usually described in terms of centrifugal, especially in older sources written before the
modern concept of centrifugal force as a fictitious force in a rotating reference frame was well
articulated. The concept of centrifugal force is not actually required to describe the action of the
centrifugal pump.

In the modern centrifugal pump, most of the energy conversion is due to the outward force that
curved impeller blades impart on the fluid. Invariably, some of the energy also pushes the fluid
into a circular motion, and this circular motion can also convey some energy and increase the
pressure at the outlet.

Fig:3.8

10
11
 Chapter #4
Heat Exchanger
4.1 Introduction
A heat exchanger is a piece of equipment built for efficient heat transfer from one medium to
another. The media may be separated by a solid wall, so that they never mix, or they may be in
direct contact. They are widely used in space heating, refrigeration, air conditioning, power
plants, chemical plants, petrochemical plants, petroleum refineries, natural gas processing, and
sewage treatment. The classic example of a heat exchanger is found in an internal combustion
engine in which a circulating fluid known as engine coolant flows through radiator coils and air
flows past the coils, which cools the coolant and heats the incoming air. There are two primary
classifications of heat exchangers according to their flow arrangement. In parallel-flow heat
exchangers, the two fluids enter the exchanger at the same end, and travel in parallel to one
another to the other side. In counter-flow heat exchangers the fluids enter the exchanger from
opposite ends. The counter current design is most efficient, in that it can transfer the most heat
from the heat (transfer) medium. See countercurrent. In a cross-flow heat exchanger, the fluids
travel roughly perpendicular to one another through the exchanger.
For efficiency, heat exchangers are designed to maximize the surface area of the wall between
the two fluids, while minimizing resistance to fluid flow through the exchanger. The exchanger's
performance can also be affected by the addition of fins or corrugations in one or both directions,
which increase surface area and may channel fluid flow or induce turbulence.
The driving temperature across the heat transfer surface varies with position, but an appropriate
mean temperature can be defined. In most simple systems this is the "log mean temperature
difference" (LMTD). Sometimes direct knowledge of the LMTD is not available and the NTU
method is used.

Fig:4.1

4.2 Types of heat exchangers

12
4.2.1 Shell and tube heat exchanger
Shell and tube heat exchangers consist of a series of tubes. One set of these tubes contains
the fluid that must be either heated or cooled. The second fluid runs over the tubes that are
being heated or cooled so that it can either provide the heat or absorb the heat required. A set
of tubes is called the tube bundle and can be made up of several types of tubes: plain,
longitudinally finned, etc. Shell and tube heat exchangers are typically used for high-pressure
applications (with pressures greater than 30 bar and temperatures greater than 260°C). This is
because the shell and tube heat exchangers are robust due to their shape.
There are several thermal design features that are to be taken into account when designing
the tubes in the shell and tube heat exchangers. These include:

Tube diameter: Using a small tube diameter makes the heat exchanger both economical and
compact. However, it is more likely for the heat exchanger to foul up faster and the small
size makes mechanical cleaning of the fouling difficult. To prevail over the fouling and
cleaning problems, larger tube diameters can be used. Thus to determine the tube diameter,
the available space, cost and the fouling nature of the fluids must be considered.

Tube thickness: The thickness of the wall of the tubes is usually determined to ensure:

o There is enough room for corrosion

o That flow-induced vibration has resistance
o Axial strength
o Availability of spare parts
o Hoop strength (to withstand internal tube pressure)
o Buckling strength (to withstand overpressure in the shell)

Tube length: heat exchangers are usually cheaper when they have a smaller shell diameter
and a long tube length. Thus, typically there is an aim to make the heat exchanger as long as
physically possible whilst not exceeding production capabilities. However, there are many
limitations for this, including the space available at the site where it is going to be used and
the need to ensure that there are tubes available in lengths that are twice the required length
(so that the tubes can be withdrawn and replaced). Also, it has to be remembered that long,
thin tubes are difficult to take out and replace.

Tube pitch: when designing the tubes, it is practical to ensure that the tube pitch (i.e., the
centre-centre distance of adjoining tubes) is not less than 1.25 times the tubes' outside
diameter. A larger tube pitch leads to a larger overall shell diameter which leads to a more
expensive heat exchanger.

Tube corrugation: this type of tubes, mainly used for the inner tubes, increases the turbulence
of the fluids and the effect is very important in the heat transfer giving a better performance.

13
 Tube Layout: refers to how tubes are positioned within the shell. There are four main types
of tube layout, which are, triangular (30°), rotated triangular (60°), square (90°) and rotated
square (45°). The triangular patterns are employed to give greater heat transfer as they force
the fluid to flow in a more turbulent fashion around the piping. Square patterns are employed
where high fouling is experienced and cleaning is more regular.

Baffle Design: baffles are used in shell and tube heat exchangers to direct fluid across the
tube bundle. They run perpendicularly to the shell and hold the bundle, preventing the tubes
from sagging over a long length. They can also prevent the tubes from vibrating. The most
common type of baffle is the segmental baffle. The semicircular segmental baffles are
oriented at 180 degrees to the adjacent baffles forcing the fluid to flow upward and
downwards between the tube bundles. Baffle spacing is of large thermodynamic concern
when designing shell and tube heat exchangers. Baffles must be spaced with consideration
for the conversion of pressure drop and heat transfer. For thermo economic optimization it is
suggested that the baffles be spaced no closer than 20% of the shell’s inner diameter. Having
baffles spaced too closely causes a greater pressure drop because of flow redirection.
Consequently having the baffles spaced too far apart means that there may be cooler spots in
the corners between baffles. It is also important to ensure the baffles are spaced close enough
that the tubes do not sag. The other main type of baffle is the disc and donut baffle which
consists of two concentric baffles, the outer wider baffle looks like a donut, whilst the inner
baffle is shaped as a disk. This type of baffle forces the fluid to pass around each side of the
disk then through the donut baffle generating a different type of fluid flow.

4.2.2 Plate heat exchanger

Another type of heat exchanger is the plate heat exchanger. One is composed of multiple, thin,
slightly-separated plates that have very large surface areas and fluid flow passages for heat
transfer. This stacked-plate arrangement can be more effective, in a given space, than the shell
and tube heat exchanger. Advances in gasket and brazing technology have made the plate-type
heat exchanger increasingly practical. In HVAC applications, large heat exchangers of this type
are called plate-and-frame; when used in open loops, these heat exchangers are normally of the
gasket type to allow periodic disassembly, cleaning, and inspection. There are many types of
permanently-bonded plate heat exchangers, such as dip-brazed and vacuum-brazed plate
varieties, and they are often specified for closed-loop applications such as refrigeration. Plate
heat exchangers also differ in the types of plates that are used, and in the configurations of those
plates. Some plates may be stamped with "chevron" or other patterns, where others may have
machined fins and/or grooves.

14
 Chapter#5
Process and Production
5.1 Storage Tanks:
There are two storage tanks under use of crystalline chemical industry. Out of the two
storage tanks One is used at a time.
The name of the storage tanks are as follows.

5.1.1 R300A:
R300A is the name of the storage tank used by the crystalline chemical industry for the
storage of molasses, which is later on used in the mash preparation.
The capacity of this storage tank is about 12480 tons, it is 1040cm in height with 33.029
diameter.
It is connected by valves and gear pumps which help to circulate and decent the molasses
from molasses pit and send it to the mash preparation unit.

Fig:5.1.1 Fig:5.1.1

5.1.2 R300B:

R300B is the name of the storage tank used by the crystalline chemical industry for the
storage of molasses, which is later on used in the mash preparation.
The capacity of this storage tank is about 15480 tons, it is 1290cm in height with 33.029
diameter.

15
 It is connected by valves and gear pumps which helps to circulate n decent the molasses
from molasses pit and send it to the mash preparation unit.
This tank is larger in size as compared to the R300A tank. Full level of this tank can run
the industry up to 9months without shutting it down for a second.

Fig:5.1.2

The gear pumps used in this section are as follows.

4.3 P300A
4.4 P300B
4.5 P301A
4.6 P301B

5.2 P300A & P300B:

These pumps are used for the decantation; they receive suction from the tank and send it
to the Mash preparation Unit.
They are controlled manually, one pump works at a time, and they are also controlled by
the valves.

5.3 P301A & P301B:

These pump are used for the circulation between the storage tanks, they receive suction
from one tank and send it to the other tank. They are controlled manually and one pump
works at a time they are also controlled by the valves

16
 Chapter#6

Molasses

6.1 Introduction:

Molasses is a viscous by-product of the processing of sugar cane, grapes or sugar beets into
sugar. The word molasses comes from the Portuguese word melaço, which ultimately comes
from mel, the Latin word for “honey”. The quality of molasses depends on the maturity of the
sugar cane or sugar beet, the amount of sugar extracted, and the method of extraction. Sweet
sorghum syrup is known in some parts of the United States as molasses, though it is not true
molasses. Sulfured molasses is made from young sugar cane. Sulfur dioxide, which acts as a
preservative, is added during the sugar extraction process. Unsulfured molasses is made from
mature sugar cane, which does not require such treatment. There are three grades of molasses:
mild or 17arbados, also known as first molasses; dark, or second molasses; and blackstrap. These
grades may be sulfured or unsulfured.

17
Fig:6.1

18
 Chapter#7
Mesh Production
7.1Introduction:
Molasses pumped from the storage tank comes at the Mash preparation unit where it passes
through the FIQ301 which tells about the total flow of molasses passed and the total flow of
molasses passes at that time. FIQ301 is the abbreviation of flow indicates quantity, then it passes
from the M302, M stands for Mixture, here molasses is mixed with process water to low down
the bricks of the coming molasses. The bricks of the coming molasses if about 60-70 and here it
is reduced to 16, then after mixing it is sent to R302 which is currently out of service R stands
for Receiver then it is sent to R303 here a flocculants Sodium hexameta Phosphate is added
which helps to settle down the sludge R303 is a type of receiver in which buckets are made
molasses enter in that buckets and then pump P307 is connected with it which takes the molasses
from R303 and send it to E302, here heat is exchanged with spent wash and then sent to R304
the temperature of Mash here is about 70℃ from here P308 is connected with it which sent the
Mash to E303 here the heat is exchanged by Process water and then sent to E304 here the heat is
exchanged by Cooling water.

From E304 Mash is sent to Pre-fermentation and fermentation, R305 is also a receiver which
takes sludge from R303 and R304 and process water is also added in it heat exchanger E301 is
connected with it in which steam is used to exchange the heat with process water P303 and P304
are used to take the sludge out of the two receivers.

Fig:7.1

19
Chapter#8
Prefermentation
8.1 Introduction:
After passing from heat exchanger E304 Mash comes in the section of pre-fermentation where
early stages of fermentation is done that is cell are produced in the Mash which will help later in
fermentation to produce alcohol. Mash from E304 with the help of pipe line comes in M411 and
Process water from water pit comes in M410, both process water and Mash mixes in M411 and
then by passing through FIC411, 412, 413 it is sent to R411, 412, 413. In these reservoirs
production of cells takes place or in other words enzymes growth takes place by the help of
adding Urea, Lactrol, phosphoric acid the whole process takes about 5 to 5.30 hours to complete
and cells are produced agitators are also fixed in the tanks to keep the liquid in motion and to
continue the process of cell production, the level of these tanks are 4600 to 4700 mm. Three rota-
meters are also connected with the tanks which contain Anti foam , Nutrients , Lactrol. Besides
the process foams are produced in the tank which are handled by Anti foam. FI414, 415 ,416 are
also connected with the reservoirs which controls the flow of Air in the tanks air helps in the cell
production as it is an aerobic process. Pump P411 and E411 are connected with R411 which
helps the Mash in circulation so as P412 and E412 with R412 and P413 E413 with R413.when
one of the reservoirs fills completely it is sent to the respected fermenters where it has to be sent
and the remaining two reservoirs set up on intercut process that is the level of one reservoirs is
half sent to the other reservoirs and when the level of both the reservoirs comes equal intercut
process stops and new feeds start entering into the reservoirs.

Fig:8.1

20
 Chapter#9
Fermentation

9.1 Introduction:
Fermentation, one of the oldest chemical processes known to man, is used to make a variety of
products, including foods, flavorings, beverages, pharmaceuticals, and chemicals. At present,
however, many of the simpler products such as ethanol are synthesized from petroleum feedstock
at lower costs. The future of the fermentation industry, therefore, depends on its ability to utilize
the high efficiency and specificity of enzyme catalysis to synthesize complex products and on its
ability to overcome variations in quality and availability of raw materials.
Ethanol is made from a variety of agricultural products such as grain, molasses, fruit,
whey and sulfite waste liquor. Generally, most of the agricultural products mentioned above
command higher prices as foods, and others, eg, potatoes, are uneconomical because of their low
ethanol yield and high transportation cost. The energy crisis of the early seventies may have
generated renewed interest in ethanol fermentation, but its use still depends on the availability
and cost of the carbohydrate relative to the availability and cost of ethylene. Sugar and grain
prices, like oil prices, have risen dramatically since 1973.
Fermentation processes from any material that contains sugar can derive ethanol. The
many and varied raw materials used in the manufacture of ethanol via fermentation are
conveniently classified under three types of agricultural raw materials: sugar, starches, and
cellulose materials. Sugars (from sugar cane, sugar beets, molasses, fruits) can be converted to
ethanol directly. Starches (from grains, potatoes, root crops) must first be hydrolyzed to
fermentable sugars by the action of enzymes from malt or molds. Cellulose from wood,
agricultural residues, waste sulfite liquor from pulp and paper mills) must likewise be converted
to sugars, generally by the action of mineral acids. Once simple sugars are formed, enzymes
from yeast can readily ferment them to ethanol. The most widely used sugar for ethanol
fermentation is blackstrap molasses which contains about 35 – 40 wt% sucrose, 15 – 20 wt%
invert sugars such as glucose and fructose, and 28 – 35 wt% of non-sugar solids. Blackstrap
(syrup) is collected as a by-product of cane sugar manufacture. The molasses is diluted to a mash
containing ca 10 –20 wt% sugar. After the pH of the mash is adjusted to about 4 – 5 with mineral
acid, it is inoculated with the yeast, and the fermentation is carried out non-aseptically at 20 –
32°C for about 1 – 3days. The fermented beer, which typically contains ca 6 – 10 wt% ethanol, is
then set to the product recovery in purification section of the plant.
9.2 Ethanol Fermentation With Yeast
The organisms of primary interest to industrial operations in fermentation of ethanol
include Saccharomyces cerevisiae, S. uvarum, Schizosaccharomyces pombe, and
Kluyueromyces sp. Yeast, under anaerobic conditions, metabolize glucose to ethanol primarily
by way of the Embden-Meyerhof pathway. The overall net reaction involves the production of 2
moles each of ethanol, but the yield attained in practical fermentations however does not usually
exceed 90 – 95% of theorectical. This is partly due to the requirement for some nutrient to be
utilized in the synthesis of new biomass and other cell maintenance related reactions.

21
 A small concentration of oxygen must be provided to the fermenting yeast as it is a
necessary component in the biosynthesis of polyunsaturated fats and lipids. Typical amounts of
O2 maintained in the broth are 0.05 – 0.10 mm Hg oxygen tension.
The relative requirements for nutrients not utilized in ethanol synthesis are in proportion
to the major components of the yeast cell. These include carbon oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen.
To leaser extent quantities of phosphorus, sulfur, potassium, and magnesium must also be
provided for the synthesis of minor components. Minerals (i.e. Mn, Co, Cu, Zn) and organic
factors (amino acids, nucleic acids, and vitamins) are required in trace amounts.
Yeast is highly susceptible to ethanol inhibition. Concentration of 1-2% (w/v) is
sufficient to retard microbial growth and at 10% (w/v) alcohol, the growth rate of the organism is
nearly halted.
When the cell production in Prefermentation completes, the setup is sent to that Fermentor which
is empty, R421, 422, 423, 424, 425, 426, 427, 428 are the names of the fermenters. Feed in that
fermenters comes from E304 and process water from the water pit , Mixture M412 is connected
at the top of the fermenters section with which FIC 421 is connected which controls the flow of
feed in fermenters R423, 424, FIC422 which controls the flow of feed in fermenters
R425.426.427.428 , and FIC 423 controls the flow of feed in fermenters R421 & R422.Antifoam
is also used in this section to overcome the foaming production in fermenters, Carbon dioxide
suction pipes are also connected with each fermenters to suck the Carbon dioxide gas produce
during the process and it is sent to the carbon dioxide blower. When the setup from the
prefermentor is comes in fermentor the feed from the FIC’s stops and the fermenters is set on
setup where the cells which were produced in the prefermenters are allowed to react this whole
process take 40 hrs to complete and the filling time is 18 hrs approx and when the process is
complete it is sent to the main fermentor tank R430. Fermenters take 33% of volume of the
Prefermenters and remaining filling is done by feed. Two fermenters are connected to one pump
and one heat exchanger, fermenters R421 and R422 are connected with pump P421 and heat
exchanger E421 , fermenters R423 and R424 are connected with pump P422 and heat exchanger
E422 , fermenters R425 and R426 are connected with pump P423 and heat exchanger E423,
fermenters R427 and R428 are connected with pump P424 and heat exchanger E424 all these
pumps and heat exchangers are used for the circulation of the mash. Pump P425 is connected
with the main line which takes the setup from the fermenters and sent it to tank R430 there two
more pumps are connected P430A and P430B which takes suction from the setup line.

Fig:9.2

Chapter#10
Distillation
22
10.1 Introduction:
Distillation separates chemicals by the difference in how easily they vaporize. The two major
types of classical distillation include continuous distillation and batch distillation. Continuous
distillation, as the name says, continuously takes a feed and separates it into two or more
products. Batch distillation takes on lot (or batch) at a time of feed and splits it into products by
selectively removing the more volatile fractions over time. Distillation services can be sorted out
into many different categories. Here are some basic definitions:

10.2 System composition:

System refers to the chemical components present in the mixture being distilled. The two main
groups are binary distillation and multi-component distillation.

10.2.1 Binary distillation: is a separation of only two chemicals. A good example is separating
ethyl alcohol (ethanol) form water. Most of the basic distillation teaching and a lot of theoretical
work starts with looking at binary distillation; it's a lot simpler.

10.2.2 Multi component distillation: is the separation of a mixture of chemicals. A good

example is petroleum refining. Crude oil is a very complex mixture of hydrocarbons with
literally thousands of different molecules. Nearly all commercial distillation is multicomponent
distillation. The theory and practice of multicomponent distillation can be very complex.

10.3 Processing Mode:

Processing mode refers to the way in which feed and product are introduced and withdrawn from
the process. Distillation occurs in two modes, continuous distillation and batch distillation.

10.4.1 Continuous distillation: is feed is sent to the still all the time and product is drawn out at
the same time. The idea in continuous distillation is that the amount going into the still and the
amount leaving the still should always equal each other at any given point in time.

10.4.2 Batch distillation: is when the amount going into the still and the amount going out of the
still is not supposed to be the same all the time. The easiest example to use is like old fashioned
spirit making. The distiller fills a container at the start, then heats it, as time goes by the vapors
are condensed to make the alcoholic drink. When the proper quantity of overhead (drink) is
made, the distiller stops the still and empties it out ready for a new batch. This is only a simple
case, in industrial usage what goes on gets very complex.Both continuous and batch distillation
are very important to industry. Continuous distillation is most often used with big volume
products like jet fuel, benzene, plastic monomers. Batch distillation is most often used with
smaller volume products and in plants that make lots of different things and use the same still for
many products (in different batches).

23
10.5 Processing sequence:

Fractionation systems have different objectives. The major processing objectives set the system
type and the equipment configuration needed. The common objectives include removing a light
component from a heavy product, removing a heavy component from a light product, making
two products, or making more than two products. We will call these major categories are called
stripping, rectification, fractionation, and complex fractionation.

This terminology may be a little confusing because we also use the terms stripping and
fractionation when we discuss heat flow options through the unit. This confusion results from
historical use of the terms and you just need to keep the context in mind when reading or
discussing the material. With a little practice you will find that the reason for using the same
terms is that many of the systems called stripping or fractionation systems have the same
characteristics regardless of using a processing sequence or heat flow analysis of the unit.

Stripping systems remove light material from a heavy product.

Rectification systems remove heavy material from a light product.

Fractionation systems remove a light material from a heavy product and a heavy material from
a light product at the same time.

Complex fractionation makes multiple products from either a single tower or a complex of
towers combined with recycle streams between them. A good example of a multiple product
tower is a refinery crude distillation tower making rough cuts of naphtha (gasoline), kerosene (jet
fuel), and diesel from the same tower. A good example of a complex tower with internal recycle
streams is a Petlyck (baffle) tower making three on-specifications products from the same tower.

10.6 The columns used in distillation are as follows

11 C510 which is further divided into C511 & C520
12 C560A and C560B
13 C540
14 C530
15 C550
16 C521
17 C500

24
 Chapter #11
Effluent Treatment Plant
11.1Introduction
Effluent treatment plant and system is based on the aerobic respiration method; it consists of
three stages namely primary treatment, secondary bio-treatment, and tertiary treatment. The
effluent water is passed through various processes such as chemical dosing, aeration, and
settling.

Activated sludge is a biochemical process for treating sewage and industrial wastewater that uses
air (or oxygen) and microorganisms to biologically oxidize organic pollutants, producing a waste
sludge (or floc) containing the oxidized material. In general, an activated sludge process
includes:

• An aeration tank where air (or oxygen) is injected and thoroughly mixed into the wastewater.
• A settling tank (usually referred to as a "clarifier" or "settler") to allow the waste sludge to
settle. Part of the waste sludge is recycled to the aeration tank and the remaining waste
sludge is removed for further treatment and ultimate disposal.

"Primary clarifiers” are used to settle sludge while grease and oils rise to the surface and are
skimmed off. Primary settling tanks are usually equipped with mechanically driven scrapers that
continually drive the collected sludge towards a hopper in the base of the tank where it is
pumped to sludge treatment facilities.[6]:9-11 Grease and oil from the floating material can
sometimes be recovered for saponification.
The dimensions of the tank should be designed to effect removal of a high percentage of the
floatables and sludge. A typical sedimentation tank may remove from 50 to 70 percent
of suspended solids, and from 30 to 35 percent of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) from the
sewage.

Distillery spent wash is the unwanted residual liquid waste generated during alcohol production
and pollution caused by it is one of the most critical environmental issue. Despite standards
imposed on effluent quality, untreated or partially treated effluent very often finds access to
watercourses. The distillery wastewater with its characteristic unpleasant odor poses a serious
threat to the water quality in several regions around the globe. The ever-increasing generation of
distillery spent wash on the one hand and stringent legislative regulations of its disposal on the
other has stimulated the need for developing new technologies to process this effluent efficiently
and economically. A number of clean up technologies have been put into practice and novel
bioremediation approaches for treatment of distillery spent wash are being worked out. Potential
microbial (anaerobic and aerobic) as well as physicochemical processes as feasible remediation
technologies to combat environmental pollution are being explored. An emerging field in
distillery waste management is exploiting its nutritive potential for production of various high
25
value compounds. This review presents an overview of the pollution problems caused by
distillery spent wash, the technologies employed globally for its treatment and its alternative use
in various biotechnological sectors.

Fig:11.1

26
27
 Chapter#12
Boiler

12.1Introduction:
A boiler or steam generator is a device used to create steam by applying heat energy to water.
Although the definitions are somewhat flexible, it can be said that older steam generators were
commonly termed boilers and worked at low to medium pressure (1–300 psi/0.069–20.684 bar;
6.895–2,068.427 kPa) but, at pressures above this, it is more usual to speak of a steam generator.

The steam generator or boiler is an integral component of a steam engine when considered as
a prime mover; however it needs be treated separately, as to some extent a variety of generator
types can be combined with a variety of engine units. A boiler incorporates
a firebox or furnace in order to burn the fuel and generate heat; the heat is initially transferred to
water to make steam; this produces saturated steam at ebullition temperature saturated steam
which can vary according to the pressure above the boiling water. The higher the furnace
temperature, the faster the steam production. The saturated steam thus produced can then either
be used immediately to produce power via a turbine and alternator, or else may be
further superheated to a higher temperature; this notably reduces suspended water content
making a given volume of steam produce more work and creates a greater temperature gradient
in order to counter tendency to condensation due to pressure and heat drop resulting from work
plus contact with the cooler walls of the steam passages and cylinders and wire-drawing effect
from strangulation at the regulator. Any remaining heat in the combustion gases can then either
be evacuated or made to pass through an economizer, the role of which is to warm the feed
water before it reaches the boiler.

12.1.1Water Tube Boiler:

A water tube boiler is a type of boiler in which water circulates in tubes heated externally by
the fire. Fuel is burned inside the furnace, creating hot gas which heats water in the steam-
generating tubes. In smaller boilers, additional generating tubes are separate in the furnace, while
larger utility boilers rely on the water-filled tubes that make up the walls of the furnace to
generate steam.
The heated water then rises into the steam drum. Here, saturated steam is drawn off the top of the
drum. In some services, the steam will reenter the furnace through a super ater to become
superheated. Superheated steam is defined as steam that is heated above the boiling point at a
given pressure. Superheated steam is a dry gas and therefore used to drive turbines, since water
droplets can severely damage turbine blades.
Cool water at the bottom of the steam drum returns to the feed water drum via large-bore 'down
comer tubes', where it pre-heats the feed water supply. (In 'large utility boilers', the feed water is
supplied to the steam drum and the down comers supply water to the bottom of the water walls).
To increase economy of the boiler, exhaust gases are also used to pre-heat the air blown into the

28
furnace and warm the feed water supply. Such water tube boilers in thermal power station are
also called steam generating units.
The older fire-tube boiler design – in which the water surrounds the heat source and the gases
from combustion pass through tubes through the water space – is a much weaker structure and is
rarely used for pressures above 350 psi (2.4 MPa). A significant advantage of the water tube
boiler is that there is less chance of a catastrophic failure: there is not a large volume of water in
the boiler nor are there large mechanical elements subject to failure.

Fig:12.1.1
12.1.2D-type boiler
The 'D-type' is the most common type of small- to medium-sized boilers, similar to the one
shown in the schematic diagram. It is used in both stationary and marine applications. It
consists of a large steam drum vertically connected to a smaller water drum (a.k.a. "mud
drum") via multiple steam-generating tubes. These are surrounded by walls made up of larger
water-filled tubes, which make up the furnace. M-Type Boilers Two fireboxes with a control
super-heater.

Fig:12.1.2

12.2Source of Energy:

29
 There are three sources of Energy used in Crystalline chemical industry.

Biogas
Baggase
Fusel Oil

12.2.Biogas:
Biogas typically refers to a gas produced by the biological breakdown of organic matter in
the absence of oxygen. Biogas originates from biogenic material and is a type of biofuel.
Biogas is produced by the anaerobic digestion or fermentation of biodegradable materials
such as biomass, manure, sewage, municipal waste, green waste, plant material and crops.
Biogas comprises primarily methane and carbon dioxide and may have small amounts of
hydrogen sulphide, moisture and siloxanes.
The gases methane, hydrogen and carbon monoxide can be combusted or oxidized with
oxygen. This energy release allows biogas to be used as a fuel. Biogas can be used as a fuel
in any country for any heating purpose, such as cooking. It can also be used in anaerobic
digesters where it is typically used in a gas engine to convert the energy in the gas into
electricity and heat. Biogas can be compressed, much like natural gas, and used to power
motor vehicles. In the UK, for example, It is estimated to have the potential to replace around
17% of vehicle fuel. Biogas is a renewable fuel, so it qualifies for renewable energy
subsidies in some parts of the world. Biogas can also be cleaned and upgraded to natural gas
standards when it becomes biomethane.
Biogas is practically produced as landfill gas (LFG) or digester gas.
A biogas plant is the name often given to an anaerobic digester that treats farm wastes or
energy crops.
Biogas can be produced utilizing anaerobic digesters. These plants can be fed with energy
crops such as maize silage or biodegradable wastes including sewage sludge and food waste.
During the process, an air-tight tank transforms biomass waste into methane producing
renewable energy that can be used for heating, electricity, and many other operations that use
any variation of an internal combustion engine, such as GE Jenbacher gas engines. There are
two key processes: Mesophilic and Thermophilic digestion. In experimental work
atUniversity of Alaska Fairbanks, a 1000 litre digester using psychrophiles harvested from
"mud from a frozen lake in Alaska" has produced 200–300 litres of methane per day, about
20–30 % of the output from digesters in warmer climates.
Landfill gas is produced by wet organic waste decomposing under anaerobic conditions in a
landfill. The waste is covered and mechanically compressed by the weight of the material
that is deposited from above. This material prevents oxygen exposure thus allowing
anaerobic microbes to thrive. This gas builds up and is slowly released into the atmosphere if
the landfill site has not been engineered to capture the gas. Landfill gas is hazardous for three
key reasons. Landfill gas becomes explosive when it escapes from the landfill and mixes

30
 with oxygen. The lower explosive limit is 5% methane and the upper explosive limit is 15%
methane.[9] The methane contained within biogas is 20 times more potent as a greenhouse gas
than carbon dioxide. Therefore uncontained landfill gas which escapes into the atmosphere
may significantly contribute to the effects of global warming. In addition landfill gas' impact
in global warming, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) contained within landfill gas
contribute to the formation of photochemical smog.
12.2.2Baggase:
Bagasse is the fibrous matter that remains after sugarcane or sorghum stalks are crushed
to extract their juice. It is currently used as a biofuel and as a renewable resource in the
manufacture of pulp and paper products and building materials.
Agave bagasse is a similar material which consists of the tissue of the blue agave after
extraction of the sap.
For each 10 tonnes of sugarcane crushed, a sugar factory produces nearly 3 tonnes of wet
bagasse. Since bagasse is a by-product of the cane sugar industry, the quantity of
production in each country is in line with the quantity of sugarcane produced.
The high moisture content of bagasse, typically 40 to 50%, is detrimental to its use as a
fuel. Generally, bagasse is stored prior to further processing. For electricity production, it
is stored under moist conditions and the mild exothermic reaction which results from the
degradation of residual sugars dries the bagasse pile slightly. For paper and pulp
production, it is normally stored wet in order to assist in removal of the short pith fibres
which impede the papermaking process as well as to remove any remaining sugar.
A typical chemical analysis of bagasse might be (on a washed and dried basis):
Cellulose 45–55%
Hemicellulose 20–25%
Lignin 18–24%
Ash 1–4%
Waxes < 1%
Bagasse is an extremely inhomogeneous material comprising around 30-40% of "pith"
fibre which is derived from the core of the plant and is mainly parenchyma material, and
"bast", "rind" or "stem" fibre which comprises the balance and is largely derived
from sclerenchyma material. These properties make bagasse particularly problematic for
paper manufacture and have been the subject of a large body of literature.
12.2.3Fusel Oil:
Fusel alcohols, also sometimes called fusel oils, or potato oil in Europe, are higher-
order alcohols (that is, alcohols with more than two carbon atoms) formed
by fermentation and present in cider, mead, beer, wine, and spirits to varying degrees.
The term fusel is German for "bad liquor".
The compounds involved are chiefly:[citation needed]

31
 ▪ 1-propanol
▪ 2-propanol
▪ Butanol (various isomers)
▪ amyl alcohol
▪ furfural (not an alcohol)
Excessive concentrations of these fractions may cause off flavours, sometimes described
as "spicy", "hot", or "solvent-like". Some beverages, such as whisky, Siwucha, and
traditional ales and ciders, are expected to have relatively high concentrations of fusel
alcohols as part of the flavour profile. In other beverages, such as Korn, vodka,
and lagers, the presence of fusel alcohols is considered a fault.

% w/w per Number of

Alcohol
higher alcohol. carbon Atoms

isoamyl
54 5
alc.

isobutyl
18.3 4
alc.

amyl
9.6 5
alc.

butyl
4.9 4
alc.

propyl
4.1 3
alc..

hexanol 1.5 6

Chapter#13
TURBINE

13.1Introduction:

A turbine is a rotary engine that extracts energy from a fluid flow and converts it into useful
work.

32
The simplest turbines have one moving part, a rotor assembly, which is a shaft or drum with
blades attached. Moving fluid acts on the blades, or the blades react to the flow, so that they
move and impart rotational energy to the rotor. Early turbine examples are windmills and water
wheels.

Gas, steam, and water turbines usually have a casing around the blades that contains and controls
the working fluid. Credit for invention of the steam turbine is given both to the British engineer
Sir Charles Parsons (1854–1931), for invention of the reaction turbine and to Swedish engineer
Gustaf de Laval (1845–1913), for invention of the impulse turbine. Modern steam turbines
frequently employ both reaction and impulse in the same unit, typically varying the degree of
reaction and impulse from the blade root to its periphery.

A device similar to a turbine but operating in reverse, i.e., driven, is a compressor or pump. The
axial compressor in many gas turbine engines is a common example. Here again, both reaction
and impulse are employed and again, in modern axial compressors, the degree of reaction and
impulse typically vary from the blade root to its periphery.

Claude Burdin coined the term from the Latin turbo, or vortex, during an 1828 engineering
competition. Benoit Fourneyron, a student of Claude Burdin, built the first practical water
turbine.

A working fluid contains potential energy (pressure head) and kinetic energy (velocity head).
The fluid may be compressibleor incompressible. Several physical principles are employed by
turbines to collect this energy:
13.1.1Impulse turbines
These turbines change the direction of flow of a high velocity fluid or gas jet. The resulting
impulse spins the turbine and leaves the fluid flow with diminished kinetic energy. There is
no pressure change of the fluid or gas in the turbine blades (the moving blades), as in the case
of a steam or gas turbine, all the pressure drop takes place in the stationary blades (the
nozzles).
Before reaching the turbine, the fluid's pressure head is changed to velocity head by
accelerating the fluid with a nozzle.Pelton wheels and de Laval turbines use this process
exclusively. Impulse turbines do not require a pressure casement around the rotor since the
fluid jet is created by the nozzle prior to reaching the blading on the rotor. Newton's second
lawdescribes the transfer of energy for impulse turbines.
13.1.2Reaction turbines
These turbines develop torque by reacting to the gas or fluid's pressure or mass. The
pressure of the gas or fluid changes as it passes through the turbine rotor blades. A
pressure casement is needed to contain the working fluid as it acts on the turbine stage(s)
or the turbine must be fully immersed in the fluid flow (such as with wind turbines). The
casing contains and directs the working fluid and, for water turbines, maintains the

33
 suction imparted by the draft tube. Francis and most steam turbines use this concept. For
compressible working fluids, multiple turbine stages are usually used to harness the
expanding gas efficiently. Newton's third law describes the transfer of energy for reaction
turbines.

Fig13.1.1&13.1.2

13.2Types of Turbines
▪ Steam turbines are used for the generation of electricity in thermal power plants, such as
plants using coal, fuel oil or nuclear power. They were once used to directly drive
mechanical devices such as ships' propellers (e.g. the Turbinia), but most such applications
now use reduction gears or an intermediate electrical step, where the turbine is used to
generate electricity, which then powers an motor connected to the mechanical load.
▪ Gas turbines are sometimes referred to as turbine engines. Such engines usually feature an
inlet, fan, compressor, combustor and nozzle (possibly other assemblies) in addition to one
or more turbines.
▪ Transonic turbine. The gas flow in most turbines employed in gas turbine engines remains
subsonic throughout the expansion process. In a transonic turbine the gas flow becomes

34
supersonic as it exits the nozzle guide vanes, although the downstream velocities normally
become subsonic. Transonic turbines operate at a higher pressure ratio than normal but are
usually less efficient and uncommon.

Fig:13.2

35
Chapter: 14
PRODUCT

14.1Introduction:

Extra neutral alcohol is colorless and has a neutral smell and taste. It is generally distilled from
sugarcane molasses. It is used as a base for manufacturing Indian made foreign liquor. It has
strength of 75 proofs when bottled.

Suggestion

• Carbon dioxide produced during fermentation can be utilized properly in beverages

industry rather than blowing it into the air. This will not only control the load on the
generation of the electricity but also fulfill the requirement of EPA.
• At least one operator and one worker must be connected through a walky talky set, so
that they can communicate easily. It will also help in some emergency situation.
• The pipes used in industry must have different colours according to the colour system
used in the chemical industries.
• Every worker must be bound to use safety helmets and raincoats.
• Last but very important from my point of view (administration reserves the right to
disagree) that internees should be encouraged by paying some remuneration.

36