DATA COMMUNICATION MODELS FOR NETWORKS

There are several commonly used models for data communication in networks,
including:
1. The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model, which is a conceptual framework
that describes how data is transmitted over a network. It consists of seven layers, each of
which performs a specific function in the communication process.
2. The TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) model, which is the
foundation of the internet and is used by most networks today. It consists of four layers,
including the network interface, internet, transport, and application layers.
3. The DOD (Department of Defense) model, which is similar to the TCP/IP model and
consists of four layers: the host-to-network, internet, transport, and application layers.
4. The SNA (Systems Network Architecture) model, which was developed by IBM and is
used primarily in mainframe environments. It consists of seven layers, including the
physical, data link, network, transport, session, presentation, and application layers.

All these models provide a way to organize the communication protocols and interfaces
that are used in a network, making it easier to understand and troubleshoot the network.

The Open System Interconnection (OSI)

The Open System Interconnection (OSI) model is a conceptual framework that
describes how data is transmitted over a network. It consists of seven layers, each of
which performs a specific function in the communication process. These layers are:
1. Physical layer: This layer deals with the physical connection between devices, including
the type of cable and connector used, as well as the electrical and mechanical
specifications for the connection.
2. Data Link layer: This layer is responsible for providing reliable transmission of data
over the physical link. It defines the format of data packets, error detection, and
correction techniques.
3. Network layer: This layer deals with routing and addressing of data packets across the
network. It is responsible for determining the best path for data to travel from its source
to its destination.
4. Transport layer: This layer ensures that data is delivered reliably and in the correct
order to the destination. It also provides flow control to prevent data overflow.
5. Session layer: This layer establishes, maintains, and terminates sessions between
devices. A session is a logical connection between two devices that allows them to
exchange data.
6. Presentation layer: This layer deals with the format of the data, including encoding and
decoding of data, compression, and encryption.
7. Application layer: This layer provides the interface between the network and the
application that is using the network. It defines the protocols and services that
applications use to access the network.

Each layer of the OSI model communicates with the adjacent layer, either above or below it,
using a specific protocol. The OSI model provides a clear separation of functions between
layers, which makes it easier to understand, design, and troubleshoot networks.
 Benefits of the layers in ensuring interoperability of different hardware
devices.
The layers of the OSI model are designed to ensure interoperability of different hardware
devices by providing a clear separation of functions between the layers and by using
standard protocols at each layer. The main purposes or benefits of the layers in ensuring
interoperability are:
1. Physical layer: This layer provides a standard for the physical connection between
devices, which enables different hardware devices to connect to one another regardless
of the manufacturer.
2. Data Link layer: This layer provides a standard for the format of data packets and error
detection and correction techniques, which enables different hardware devices to
communicate with one another at the data link level.
3. Network layer: This layer provides a standard for routing and addressing of data
packets, which enables different hardware devices to communicate with one another
across the network regardless of their location.
4. Transport layer: This layer provides a standard for reliable delivery of data and flow
control, which enables different hardware devices to exchange data without losing or
corrupting it.
5. Session layer: This layer provides a standard for establishing, maintaining, and
terminating sessions between devices, which enables different hardware devices to
exchange data in a logical and organized manner.
6. Presentation layer: This layer provides a standard for the format of the data, including
encoding and decoding of data, compression, and encryption, which enables different
hardware devices to exchange data in a common format.
7. Application layer: This layer provides a standard for the protocols and services that
applications use to access the network, which enables different hardware devices to
exchange data at the application level.

Overall, the OSI model provides a clear framework for communication between different
devices, which allows different hardware devices to communicate with one another
regardless of the manufacturer or network topology.
The Internet, World Wide Web (WWW) and Internet Protocol (Ip)
Addresses

The Internet is a global network of interconnected computers and servers that

communicate with each other using standardized protocols.

It allows users to access and share information, communicate with one another, and
perform various other tasks online.
The World Wide Web (WWW or simply the web) is a vast collection of documents and
other resources, linked by hyperlinks and URLs, that can be accessed via the Internet.

It is a system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed via the Internet.

The web uses the HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) to transfer data, and HTML
(Hypertext Markup Language) to structure and display the data.

Internet Protocol (IP) addresses are unique numerical labels assigned to each device
connected to the internet.

They are used to identify and locate devices on a network and to route data packets to
the correct destination.

There are two versions of IP addresses: IPv4 and IPv6.

 IPv4 addresses are 32-bit numbers represented in a dotted decimal notation, such
as 192.168.1.1.

 IPv6 addresses are 128-bit numbers represented in a hexadecimal notation, such

as 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334.

IP addresses are assigned to devices by the Internet Service Provider (ISP) and are used
to route data packets across the Internet. When a device sends data to another device,
the data is divided into small packets and each packet is given the destination device's IP
address. These packets are then sent to the destination device, where they are
reassembled into the original data.
 Classes of Internet Addresses
In IPv4, Internet addresses are divided into five classes: A, B, C, D and E. Each class has a
specific range of IP addresses, and the class of an IP address determines its default
network mask, or subnet mask.

1. Class A addresses have a default mask of 255.0.0.0 and a range of 1.0.0.0 to 126.0.0.0.
These addresses are typically assigned to large organizations and service providers, and
the first octet is used to identify the network, while the remaining three octets are used
to identify the host.

2. Class B addresses have a default mask of 255.255.0.0 and a range of 128.0.0.0 to

191.255.0.0. These addresses are typically assigned to medium-sized organizations, and
the first two octets are used to identify the network, while the remaining two octets are
used to identify the host.

3. Class C addresses have a default mask of 255.255.255.0 and a range of 192.0.0.0 to

223.255.255.0. These addresses are typically assigned to small organizations and home
networks, and the first three octets are used to identify the network, while the remaining
octet is used to identify the host.

4. Class D addresses are reserved for multicast IP addresses and have a range of 224.0.0.0
to 239.255.255.255

5. Class E addresses are reserved for experimental and research purposes and have a
range of 240.0.0.0 to 254.255.255.255

In IPv6 addressing, there is no concept of classes, instead, it uses a hierarchical structure

for addressing and routing. Addresses are divided into prefixes, subnet ID and an
interface ID.
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN IPV4 AND IPV6 ADDRESSES

table comparing the differences between IPv4 and IPv6 addresses:

Feature IPv4 IPv6

Address Length 32 bits (4 octets) 128 bits (8 blocks of 16 bits)

Notation Dotted Decimal (e.g. 192.168.1.1) Hexadecimal (e.g.

2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0
370:7334)

Number of 4.3 billion 340 undecillion (3.4 x 10^38)

Addresses

Address Space IPv4 addresses are running out, IPv6 addresses are abundant and
depletion IPv6 deployment is necessary to will support the growth of internet
sustain growth for the foreseeable future

Address Types Unicast, Broadcast, Multicast Unicast, Anycast, Multicast

Address IPv4 addresses can be IPv6 addresses can be abbreviated

Abbreviation abbreviated by omitting leading by omitting leading zeroes and
zeroes in each octet consecutive fields of zeroes

Header format Fixed length of 20 bytes, Options Flexible extension headers and
can be added options can be added

Routing Classful routing, based on address Classless routing, based on prefixes

classes.

Security IPv4 does not include security IPv6 includes security features such
features. IPSec can be used for as IPsec and authentication header
security purposes (AH)
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INTERNET AND THE WORLD WIDE WEB (WWW)

Basic differences between the Internet and the World Wide Web (WWW)

Internet World Wide Web (WWW)

A global network of interconnected A vast collection of documents and other

computers and servers that communicate resources, linked by hyperlinks and URLs, that
with each other using standardized can be accessed via the Internet.
protocols.

Enables users to access and share A system of interlinked hypertext documents

information, communicate with one accessed via the Internet.
another, and perform various other tasks
online.

Uses IP addresses to identify and locate Uses HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) to
devices on a network and to route data transfer data, and HTML (Hypertext Markup
packets to the correct destination. Language) to structure and display the data.

It is the infrastructure that allows the web It is the system of interlinked documents and
to exist. other resources that make up the web.

In summary, the Internet is a global network that enables communication and the exchange of
information between computers, while the World Wide Web is a system of interlinked documents
and other resources that can be accessed via the Internet.